Urban-rural Europe - education and training

Data extracted: July 2024.

Planned article update: September 2026.

Highlights

This article presents data following the natural progression of pupils and students through different levels of the education system (according to the International standard classification of education – ISCED), before analysing transitions from education into the labour market and the participation of adults in education and learning.

Based on the latest information available, there were 95.5 million pupils and students enrolled in the European Union (EU) in 2022; this figure covers all levels of education from early childhood education through to doctoral (PhD) studies, as covered by ISCED levels 0–8.

Across the EU, a relatively large share of young people below the age of 20 years were outside of the labour force in 2023. For most, this was because they continued in full-time education and/or training; as such, they were neither working, nor looking for work. As people move through their 20s, an increasing number leave the education system and move into the labour market; see Infographic 1.

Within the EU, the share of young women who were employed was consistently lower than the corresponding share recorded among young men for each of the 5-year age classes between 20 and 34 years. This reflects, at least in part, the impact of starting a family on female labour force participation. This gender employment gap was widest among people aged 25–29 years living in rural areas, where 84.5% of men were in employment, some 13.6 percentage points higher than the corresponding share recorded among women (70.9%).

This article focuses on education and training and forms part of Eurostat’s twin publications on Rural Europe and Urban Europe.

Infographic 1: What is the employment, education and training status of young people in the EU?
(%, 2023)
Source: Eurostat (edat_lfse_18)

Educational attainment

The ISCED classification provides the basis for compiling internationally comparable education statistics. The 2011 version has 9 different education levels from early childhood education (ISCED level 0) through to doctoral (PhD) studies (ISCED level 8).

More than 1 in 5 (20.9%) of the EU’s working-age population – defined here as those aged 18–64 years – had at most a lower secondary level of educational attainment in 2023; in other words, they had a low level of education, as defined by less than primary, primary or lower secondary education (ISCED levels 0, 1 or 2). An analysis by degree of urbanisation reveals that the highest share of working-age adults with no more than a lower secondary level of educational attainment was recorded among people living in the EU’s towns and suburbs, at 23.3%. This was notably higher than the shares recorded for working-age adults living in rural areas (21.0%) or in cities (18.8%).

In 2023, Czechia, France and Luxembourg were the only EU countries to report that their highest share of working-age adults with at most a lower secondary level of educational attainment was recorded for people living in towns and suburbs; in Germany, working-age adults living in towns and suburbs recorded the joint highest shares with those living in cities. Elsewhere, rural areas most commonly had the highest share of working-age adults with at most a lower secondary level of educational attainment. This pattern was observed in 20 EU countries, with the highest shares recorded in Portugal (49.6%), Spain (44.8%) and Italy (38.1%). In the remaining countries – Malta, Belgium and Austria – the highest share of working-age adults with at most a lower secondary level of educational attainment was recorded among people living in cities; see Figure 1.

Figure 1: At most lower secondary educational attainment (18–64 years), by degree of urbanisation, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (edat_lfs_9913)

Vocational education may be undertaken at an educational institution, as part of secondary or tertiary education, may be part of initial training during employment (for example, as an apprentice), or as a combination of formal education and workplace learning. It concerns knowledge related to a specific trade, occupation or vocation in which the student or employee wishes to participate. In 2023, almost 1 in 3 (30.9%) of the EU’s population aged 25–34 years had an upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary vocational level of educational attainment; in other words, the highest level of education they had successfully completed was ISCED levels 3 or 4 in a vocational programme. Hereafter, this cohort is referred to as people with a medium level of vocational educational attainment.

In 2023, 43.0% of young adults aged 25–34 years living in rural areas of the EU had a medium level of vocational educational attainment. This share was considerably higher than those recorded for young adults living in towns and suburbs (35.1%) or in cities (22.0%). This pattern – the highest share of young adults with a medium level of vocational educational attainment living in rural areas and the lowest share in cities – was repeated in 23 EU countries. The only exceptions were Bulgaria, Cyprus and Romania (where the highest shares were recorded among young people living in towns and suburbs) and Malta (where the highest share was recorded among young people living in cities; no data for rural areas). More than half of all young adults living in rural areas of Czechia, Croatia, Slovakia, Finland, Germany, Austria and Romania had a medium level of vocational educational attainment; this was also the case for a majority of young adults living in the towns and suburbs of Czechia, Romania and Croatia. Within cities, the highest share of young adults with a medium level of vocational educational attainment was recorded in Croatia (40.3%); see Figure 2.

Figure 2: Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary vocational educational attainment (25–34 years), by degree of urbanisation, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (edat_lfs_9913)

In 2023, 43.1% of young adults aged 25–34 years living in the EU had a tertiary level of educational attainment; in other words, they had successfully completed a short-cycle tertiary course, bachelor’s, master’s or doctoral degree. The share of young women with a tertiary level of educational attainment was 48.8%, some 11.2 percentage points higher than the share among young men (37.6%).

More than half (53.3%) of all young adults living in EU cities had a tertiary level of educational attainment in 2023. This figure was considerably higher than the corresponding shares recorded among young people living in towns and suburbs (36.7%) or rural areas (31.7%). This concentration of highly qualified young adults in cities may reflect, among other factors, more job opportunities for graduates in cities, while some young adults who moved to a city to study might choose to continue living there.

In 2023, most EU countries (24 out of 27) reported an absolute majority of young women living in cities having a tertiary level of educational attainment. A peak of 91.0% was recorded in Luxembourg, while shares of more than 70.0% were also recorded in Lithuania, Denmark, Ireland, Cyprus and Sweden. Across all 3 categories within the degree of urbanisation typology, more than half of all young women in Belgium, Ireland, Spain, Cyprus, Lithuania, Luxembourg and Slovenia had a tertiary level of educational attainment; in Malta, a majority of young women living in cities and in towns and suburbs had a tertiary level of educational attainment (no data for rural areas).

There were 11 EU countries where an absolute majority of young men living in cities had a tertiary level of educational attainment in 2023: Luxembourg again recorded the highest share (87.5%), followed by Ireland, Lithuania, Cyprus and Sweden (which were the only other EU countries with shares of more than 60.0%).

The share of young men living in rural areas with a tertiary level of educational attainment was less than 50.0% in every EU country in 2023 (no data for Malta). A peak of 49.1% was recorded in Ireland, while Hungary (9.1%) and Romania (7.3%) were the only EU countries to report fewer than 1 in 10 young males with a tertiary level of educational attainment.

Figure 3: Tertiary educational attainment (25–34 years), by sex and degree of urbanisation, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (edat_lfs_9913)

Figure 4 extends the analysis of tertiary education to cover all working-age people (defined here as people aged 25–64 years); it shows changes in educational attainment levels for this broader age group between 2013 and 2023. The share of working-age adults in the EU with a tertiary level of educational attainment rose for all 3 categories within the degree of urbanisation typology: between 2013 and 2023, this share increased 9.1 percentage points for people living in cities, 6.5 points for people living in rural areas, and 6.4 points for people living in towns and suburbs.

A similar pattern was observed in each of the EU countries, as the share of working-age adults with a tertiary level of educational attainment increased systematically between 2013 and 2023 for those living in cities, towns and suburbs, and rural areas. The largest increases by degree of urbanisation were usually recorded for working-age people living in cities, as was the case in 16 out of 27 EU countries; among these, particularly big increases were observed in Slovakia (up from 34.6% to 50.8%) and Poland (up from 37.3% to 53.0%). In Ireland, Greece, Latvia and Austria, the largest increase in tertiary educational attainment was recorded for working-age people living in towns and suburbs, while in Estonia, Spain, Cyprus, Slovenia and Finland it was recorded among those living in rural areas. In Belgium and Luxembourg, their largest increases were jointly recorded for working-age people living in towns and suburbs and in rural areas.

Figure 4: Tertiary educational attainment (25–64 years), by degree of urbanisation, 2013 and 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (edat_lfs_9913)

Early leavers from education and training

The share of early leavers from education and training is 1 of the headline indicators for equal opportunities within the European pillar of social rights. It refers to the share of young people aged 18–24 years who

have completed, at most, lower secondary education and
aren’t involved in further education or training.

In 2023, some 9.5% of all young people in the EU aged 18–24 years were classified as early leavers from education and training. This share was higher among the subpopulation of young people living in towns and suburbs (10.6%) and rural areas (9.9%), while it was lower for those living in cities (8.6%). Across the whole of the EU, a higher share of young men (11.3%) than young women (7.7%) were early leavers from education and training; this gender gap was repeated for all 3 categories when analysed by degree of urbanisation. The biggest gender gap was observed for young people living in towns and suburbs, where the share of young men who were early leavers from education and training (12.6%) was 4.2 percentage points higher than the corresponding share for young women (8.4%), while the smallest gender gap (2.9 points) was recorded for rural areas.

Romania was the only EU country with a share of early leavers from education and training that was higher among young women than young men (although the gender gap was relatively narrow, at 0.2 percentage points in 2023). By contrast, the widest gaps between the sexes – with higher rates for young men – were recorded in Italy, Germany, Spain, Finland, Latvia and Malta, where the share of early leavers from education and training among young men was 4.5–5.5 percentage points higher than that among young women.

Figure 5: Early leavers from education and training (18–24 years), by sex and degree of urbanisation, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (edat_lfse_30)

People who leave the education system at a relatively young age with a low level of educational attainment may face difficulties when looking for work. Across the EU, the proportion of early leavers from education and training fell by 2.3 percentage points between 2013 and 2023. This reduction was repeated for all 3 categories when analysed by degree of urbanisation: the largest fall was recorded for young people living in rural areas (down 3.4 points), followed by those living in towns and suburbs (down 1.8 points) and those living in cities (down 1.7 points).

Denmark, Germany and Slovenia were the only EU countries where the share of early leavers from education and training rose between 2013 and 2023 for all 3 categories covered by the degree of urbanisation. There was no clear pattern, insofar as the highest increase in the share of early leavers was recorded among young people living in

cities in Slovenia (up 2.6 percentage points)
towns and suburbs in Germany (up 4.0 points)
rural areas in Denmark (up 4.7 points).

During the period under consideration, the share of early leavers from education and training fell at a rapid pace in several southern EU countries; note that these decreases reflect, at least to some degree, very high initial shares in 2013. The largest falls were recorded on the Iberian peninsula

in Spain, the share of early leavers fell at a particularly rapid pace among young people living in rural areas (down 14.0 percentage points to 14.4% in 2023)
in Portugal, the share of early leavers fell at a particularly rapid pace among young people living in towns and suburbs (down 13.0 percentage points to 7.0% in 2023).

Figure 6: Early leavers from education and training (18–24 years), by degree of urbanisation, 2013 and 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (edat_lfse_30)

Young people neither in employment nor in education and training

A considerable proportion of young people (defined here as those aged 15–29 years) in the EU are outside of the labour force. For some, this is because of their full-time participation in education and training, whereas others may have withdrawn from the labour market or didn’t enter it after leaving the education system. The magnitude of the various categories of young people in the transition from education to work is captured by statistics on young people who are neither in employment (in other words, either outside the labour force or unemployed) nor in education and training (NEET). The NEET rate is 1 of the headline indicators for equal opportunities within the European pillar of social rights.

In 2023, some 11.2% of all young people in the EU aged 15–29 years were neither in employment nor in education and training. The NEET rate was higher among the subpopulation of young people living in rural areas (12.3%) and towns and suburbs (11.7%), while it was lower for those living in cities (10.3%). The NEET rate was higher in the EU for young females (12.5%) than for young males (10.1%); this pattern was repeated for all 3 categories when studied by degree of urbanisation, with the widest gender gap recorded for rural areas.

There were 3 EU countries where the share of people neither in employment nor in education and training was higher among young males than young females in 2023: Estonia (where the difference was 1.3 percentage points), Belgium (0.3 points) and Portugal (0.1 points); there was no difference in NEET rates between the sexes in Spain and Finland. All of the remaining EU countries reported a higher share of young females than young males that were neither in employment nor in education and training. The widest gender gaps – with higher rates for young females – were recorded in several eastern EU countries: Czechia (10.9 points), Romania (10.7 points), Hungary (4.6 points) and Poland (also 4.6 points).

In 2023, the highest NEET rates among the EU countries were recorded in Romania, Italy and Greece. The share of people neither in employment nor in education and training was relatively high among young females living in towns and suburbs and to a greater extent in rural areas. It was particularly high among young females living in rural areas in Romania (34.8%), Bulgaria (28.2%) and Greece (22.3%), as well as among young females living in towns and suburbs in Romania (28.7%).

Figure 7: Young people neither in employment nor in education and training (15–29 years), by sex and degree of urbanisation, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (edat_lfse_29)

Across the EU, the share of young people neither in employment nor in education and training fell by 4.9 percentage points between 2013 and 2023. A decrease was observed for all 3 categories covered by the degree of urbanisation: the largest fall was recorded for young people living in rural areas (down 5.5 points), followed by those living in towns and suburbs (down 4.8 points) and those living in cities (down 4.2 points).

Between 2013 and 2023, Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg and Austria were the only EU countries where the overall share of young people neither in employment nor in education and training increased

in Denmark and Luxembourg (no data for cities), the NEET rate rose for young people living in towns and suburbs and for young people living in rural areas
in Austria, the NEET rate rose for young people living in cities and for young people living in rural areas
in Germany, the NEET rate rose for young people living in towns and suburbs.

The only other EU countries that recorded an increasing NEET rate for any of the categories within the degree of urbanisation classification were

Lithuania, where a fall in the NEET rate for young people living in rural areas outweighed increasing rates for young people living in towns and suburbs and in cities
Romania, where a fall in the NEET rate for young people living in cities outweighed increasing rates for young people living in towns and suburbs and in rural areas.

There were 5 EU countries that recorded a double-digit fall for their NEET rate between 2013 and 2023: Greece, Bulgaria, Ireland, Croatia and Spain. In each case, the biggest fall was experienced among young people living in rural areas, while the smallest fall was generally recorded among young people living in cities (the only exception was Croatia, where the fall for young people living in towns and suburbs was somewhat smaller than that for young people living in cities).

Figure 8: Young people neither in employment nor in education and training (15–29 years), by degree of urbanisation, 2013 and 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (edat_lfse_29)

Adult participation in education and training

Adult education and training is often targeted at the improvement of technical or professional qualifications, to complete a level of formal education, or to acquire, refresh or update skills and competencies in a particular field. In doing so, adult learning may help, among other benefits, to improve employability, enhance social fairness and close the digital skills gap. This is reflected in the context of the European Education Area strategic framework, where targets for the EU have been set, namely, that at least 47% of all adults should be participating in training every year by 2025 and that at least 60% of all adults should be participating in training every year by 2030.

In 2022, some 6.3% of working-age adults (defined here as people between 25 and 64 years) in the EU participated in formal education and training during the 12 months prior to the adult education survey (AES), while 44.0% participated in non-formal education and training. As some people participated in both, the combined share of working-age adults participating in formal or non-formal education and training was 46.6%, which was 0.4 percentage points below the interim target set for 2025 and 13.4 points below the target for 2030 ^[1].

In 2022, the share of the EU’s working-age population living in cities who participated in formal education and training was 8.3%; this was 4.1 percentage points above the corresponding share for the working-age population living in rural areas (4.2%). In a similar vein, the participation rate for non-formal education and training peaked among working-age people living in cities (47.7%), while lower shares were recorded for those living in towns and suburbs (43.5%) and in rural areas (38.6%). This pattern – higher participation rates for education and training being recorded among people living in cities than in rural areas – was repeated in the vast majority of EU countries, the only exceptions were

Lithuania and Slovakia, where the participation rate for formal education and training among working-age people living in rural areas was marginally higher than that for working-age people living in cities
Belgium, Cyprus and Malta, where the participation rate for non-formal education and training among working-age people living in rural areas was 4.8 to 5.2 percentage points higher than the share recorded for working-age people living in cities.

Figure 9: Adult participation in education and training (25–64 years), by type of education and degree of urbanisation, 2022
(%)
Source: Eurostat (trng_aes_105)

Between 2011 and 2022, adult participation in formal education and training increased by 1.2 percentage points across the EU. This pattern was repeated for all 3 categories when analysed by degree of urbanisation, with the largest increase recorded for people living in cities (up 1.9 points), followed by those living in towns and suburbs (up 0.9 points) and in rural areas (up 0.6 points).

Adult participation in formal education and training rose between 2011 and 2022 in 14 out of the 26 EU countries for which data are available (only partial information for Croatia); the highest increase was recorded in Sweden, where the participation rate was up 7.4 percentage points. There was no difference in the rates for adult participation in formal education and training in Bulgaria, Romania or Slovenia in 2011 and 2022. By contrast, there were 9 EU countries where the participation rate fell; the largest fall was recorded in Portugal, down 4.7 points during the period under consideration.

Between 2011 and 2022, the largest gains (all above 3.0 points) in adult participation in formal education and training were observed

across all 3 degrees of urbanisation in Sweden (with the highest increase reported among people living in rural areas)
for people living in the cities and rural areas of Ireland
for people living in the cities and towns and suburbs of Germany (only partial data available for rural areas)
for people living in the cities of Luxembourg, Hungary and Malta.

Figure 10: Adult participation in formal education and training (25–64 years), by degree of urbanisation, 2011 and 2022
(%)
Source: Eurostat (trng_aes_105)

Source data for tables and graphs

Education and training: tables and figures

Context

Alongside the provision of health care, public expenditure on education is often considered as 1 of the most important investments that can be made in people. Education has the potential to drive forward socioeconomic development: this is particularly the case in a globalised world where a highly-skilled workforce can be an advantage in terms of productivity, innovation and competitiveness.

Education and training play a vital role in the economic and social strategies of the EU. In February 2021, a Council Resolution on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021–2030) was adopted. It set a number of policy targets for the European Education Area and pursues 5 priority actions

improve quality, equity, inclusion and success for all in education and training
make lifelong learning and mobility a reality for all
enhance competences and motivation in the education profession
reinforce tertiary education
support the green and digital transitions in and through education and training.

Notes

↑ Please note that the definition of non-formal education and training applied in the AES differs slightly from the one used for the definition of the target. The AES covers all types of non-formal education and training, while the target excludes one particular type of non-formal learning, namely, guided on-the-job training.

Explore further

Database

Thematic section

Publications

Statistical publications

Eurostat regional yearbook – 2024 edition
Urban Europe – statistics on cities, towns and suburbs – 2016 edition
Young people in Europe – a statistical summary – 2022 edition

Methodological publications

Applying the Degree of Urbanisation – A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons – 2021 edition

Methodology

External links

Urban Agenda for the EU

European Commission – Directorate-General Agriculture and rural development

Rural development

European Commission – Directorate-General Regional and Urban Policy

European Committee of the Regions

European Committee of the Regions – political priorities 2020–25

European networks

United Nations

Legislation

Statistical legislation

Education and training – legislation
Regulation (EU) 2017/2391 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2017 amending Regulation (EC) No 1059/2003 as regards the territorial typologies (Tercet)
Consolidated and amended version of Regulation (EC) No 1059/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the establishment of a common classification of territorial units for statistics (NUTS)

Policy legislation

Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 522/2014 of 11 March 2014 supplementing Regulation (EU) No 1301/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to the detailed rules concerning the principles for the selection and management of innovative actions in the area of sustainable urban development to be supported by the European Regional Development Fund
Regulation (EU) No 1305/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD)
Regulation (EU) No 1310/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 laying down certain transitional provisions on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD)

Visualisation

Regions and cities illustrated (RCI) – Degree of urbanisation

[1] Please note that the definition of non-formal education and training applied in the AES differs slightly from the one used for the definition of the target. The AES covers all types of non-formal education and training, while the target excludes one particular type of non-formal learning, namely, guided on-the-job training.

[1]