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Data extracted: July 2024.

Planned article update: September 2026.

Highlights

Capital cities play a crucial role in the economic development of the European Union (EU). Aside from their economic importance, the cultural identity of well-known capitals such as Praha (Czechia), Berlin (Germany), Paris (France) or Roma (Italy) helps to shape opinions of the EU across the globe.

Capital cities in the EU are hubs for competitiveness and employment. They are often seen as drivers of innovation and growth, as well as centres for education and science, as well as social and cultural diversity, providing a range of services and cultural attractions to their surrounding areas. Nevertheless, capital cities in the EU also provide examples of the ‘urban paradox’, insofar as they may be characterised by a range of social, economic and environmental inequalities; as such, they are at the heart of efforts to ensure more sustainable and inclusive growth within the EU.

This article examines the relationship between capital cities and the national economies to which they belong; it also provides information on the relative importance of other (non-capital) metropolitan regions. The article shows that some capital cities appear to exert a form of ‘capital magnetism’, with a monocentric pattern of urban development that results in national investment/resources being concentrated in the capital. Whether such disparities have a positive or negative effect on the national economy is open to debate, as large capital cities that dominate their national economies may create high levels of income and wealth that radiate to surrounding areas/regions. By contrast, other capital cities are part of a more polycentric pattern of urban development, whereby economic activity and employment is more evenly balanced between the capital and other major cities.

This article forms part of Eurostat’s online publication Urban Europe. Note that an article on demographic developments in cities provides complementary information (including a focus on population developments in EU capital cities).

An infographic showing labour productivity for capital cities in the EU. Data are presented in the form of a proportional barplot or lollipop chart. Data are shown for each capital city metropolitan regions in the EU. The size of each bubble refers to the overall level of GDP, the plots for each bubble represent labour productivity (defined as GDP per person employed). The level of GDP is based on millions of euro, the ratio of labour productivity is shown in thousands of euro. Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Infographic 1: How does labour productivity vary across the capital cities of EU countries?
(€1 000 of GDP per person employed, 2021)
Source: Eurostat (met_pjanaggr3), (met_10r_3gdp) and (met_10r_3emp)


Economic activity

As of 1 January 2023, there were 73.8 million people living in the 27 capital city metropolitan regions of the EU; this figure represented 16.5% of the total number of inhabitants of the EU. The relative importance of these regions was greater in terms of their contribution to employment (17.2% of the EU total in 2023); note however that capital cities also provide work to commuters whose residence may be outside their territorial boundaries. Capital city metropolitan regions made their largest contribution to the EU economy in terms of wealth creation: their combined gross domestic product (GDP) was €3.2 trillion in 2021, which equated to 22.3% of the EU total.

Figure 1 shows the relative importance of capital city metropolitan regions within their respective national economies. Excluding Cyprus and Luxembourg (which are relatively small EU countries composed of only 1 NUTS level 3 region), the contribution of capital cities to national GDP in 2021 ranged from 6.0% in Berlin (Germany) and 9.0% in Roma (Italy) to 60.5% in Tallinn (Estonia) and 68.8% in Rīga (Latvia), with the 95.8% share in Valletta (Malta) above this range; a relatively small share of economic activity in Malta took place outside of the main island (therefore on Gozo and Comino).

  • Berlin (Germany) was the only capital city metropolitan region to record a share of national GDP that was lower than its share of national employment.
  • In Bratislava (Slovakia) and București (Romania), the share of national GDP accounted for by the capital city metropolitan region was almost twice as high as the share of national employment.
A hi-lo chart showing a set of main indicators for capital city metropolitan regions, with information for the population, employment and GDP. Data are shown for the capital city metropolitan regions of the EU countries, Norway and Switzerland. Information is presented in percent, for the share of each capital city metropolitan region in its national total. Annual data are presented for 2023. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 1: Main indicators for capital city metropolitan regions, 2023
(% share of national total)
Source: Eurostat (met_pjanaggr3), (met_lfe3emp), (met_10r_3gdp), (demo_pjan), (lfsa_egan) and (nama_10_gdp)

More about the data: GDP – territorial and residential approaches

GDP is calculated on the basis of where people work (a territorial approach, rather than a residential approach). Cities that are characterised by high net commuter inflows are likely to witness a level of economic output beyond that which could be produced by their active resident population, and GDP per inhabitant will therefore be relatively high.

As such, cities with apparently high levels of GDP per inhabitant don’t necessarily have correspondingly high levels of income, as some of their income will be received by commuters (living in other regions). Furthermore, GDP doesn’t provide any information on the distribution of wealth among those living in each territory.

GDP per inhabitant provides an alternative measure for analysing the relative position of capital cities within their national economies; the statistics presented in Figure 2 are expressed in purchasing power standards (PPS) to reflect price level differences between EU countries.

In 2021, GDP per inhabitant in the EU was 32 700 PPS.

  • There were 3 capital city metropolitan regions that had ratios below the EU average: Lisboa (Portugal; 31 300 PPS), Rīga (Latvia; 30 400 PPS) and Athina (Greece; 28 300 PPS).
  • The highest levels of GDP per inhabitant in PPS were recorded in Dublin (Ireland; 89 400 PPS) and København (Denmark; 56 400 PPS), with the capitals of France, Romania, Sweden, Poland, the Netherlands and Slovakia also recording ratios of at least 50 000 PPS.
  • Bucureşti (Romania), Warszawa (Poland) and Bratislava (Slovakia) were the only capital city metropolitan regions to report GDP per inhabitant in PPS that was more than twice as high as their respective national averages.
  • Berlin (Germany) was the only capital city metropolitan region to report GDP per inhabitant in PPS that was below the national average.
A hi-lo chart showing GDP per inhabitant. Plots are shown for capital city metropolitan regions and for the national average. Data are shown for EU countries and Norway. Information is presented in purchasing power standards (PPS). Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 2: GDP per inhabitant, 2021
(PPS)
Source: Eurostat (met_10r_3gdp) and (nama_10_pc)

With growing numbers of relatively young people moving to live in and around some of the EU’s main cities, economic growth has become increasingly dependent on the productivity of the urban workforce. Figure 3 shows GDP per inhabitant for capital city metropolitan regions in 2021 expressed as an index relative to the GDP per inhabitant of non-metropolitan regions (with a base value of 100); these ratios are based on data in PPS.

  • GDP per inhabitant was consistently higher in capital city metropolitan regions than it was for non-metropolitan regions – this pattern was repeated in all of the EU countries.
  • GDP per inhabitant in the capital city metropolitan regions of Bucureşti and Sofia was approximately 3 times as high as it was for the non-metropolitan regions of Romania and Bulgaria, respectively; it was also relatively high in Warszawa (Poland), Dublin (Ireland) and Bratislava (Slovakia).
  • GDP per inhabitant in Warszawa and Paris was 2.8 times and 2.3 times as high as in non-metropolitan regions of Poland and France, considerably higher ratios than in the other large EU countries: Madrid and Roma had GDP per inhabitant that was 1.5 and 1.4 times as high as in the non-metropolitan regions of Spain and Italy, while GDP per inhabitant in Berlin was 1.1 times as high.
A column chart showing GDP per inhabitant for capital city metropolitan regions. Data are shown for the capital city regions of the EU countries. Information is presented as an index, with GDP per inhabitant for non-metropolitan regions equal to 100. Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 3: GDP per inhabitant for capital city metropolitan regions, 2021
(index, GDP per inhabitant for non-metropolitan regions = 100, based on data in PPS)
Source: Eurostat (met_10r_3gdp)

The ratio of GDP per person employed can be used to measure labour productivity or more generally competitiveness. It has an advantage (over GDP per inhabitant) insofar as the number of people employed is also influenced by commuter flows; as such, it provides a clearer picture of how efficiently an economy is using its labour force to generate output.

A comparison with other metropolitan regions reveals that capital cities were among the most productive metropolitan regions of the EU, with relatively high levels of GDP per person employed; this may, at least in part, reflect certain economic functions and headquarters of large companies often being clustered in these regions. In 2021, there were 17 out of 22 EU countries for which data are available where the capital city metropolitan region had the highest level of GDP per person employed; see Figure 4. In the Romanian capital of Bucureşti, GDP per person employed was 55% higher than in any other metropolitan region (of Romania). A similar pattern was observed for the capitals of Greece, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Czechia, Poland and Croatia, as GDP per person employed was 33–46% higher than in any other metropolitan region.

Although registering the highest level of GDP per person employed among the capital city metropolitan regions of the EU in 2021, the Irish capital of Dublin (179 100 PPS) had a much lower level of GDP per person employed than Cork (284 300 PPS) [1]. There were 4 additional EU countries where GDP per person employed for the capital city metropolitan region was surpassed by that of at least 1 other metropolitan region (in the same country)

  • the western region of Mainz recorded the highest level of GDP per person employed (117 600 PPS) among German metropolitan regions, some 1.7 times as high as in Berlin
  • the northern region of Milano recorded the highest level of GDP per person employed (95 300 PPS) among Italian metropolitan regions, some 1.2 times as high as in Roma
  • the northern region of Vitoria/Gasteiz recorded the highest level of GDP per person employed (85 200 PPS) among Spanish metropolitan regions, some 1.2 times as high as in Madrid
  • the Alpine region of Salzburg recorded the highest level of GDP per person employed (89 500 PPS) among Austrian metropolitan regions, some 1.1 times as high as in Wien.
A hi-lo chart showing GDP per person employed for metropolitan regions. Plots are shown for the capital city metropolitan region and the highest other metropolitan region in each country. Data are shown for EU countries and Norway. Information is presented in purchasing power standards (PPS). Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 4: GDP per person employed in capital city and highest other metropolitan regions, 2021
(PPS)
Source: Eurostat (met_10r_3gdp) and (met_10r_3emp)

Figure 5 provides a more detailed picture for metropolitan regions in the 6 most populous EU countries. The charts explore the relationship between GDP per person employed in 2021 and the total number of inhabitants living in each metropolitan region as of 1 January 2022; note that the size of the bubbles reflects the overall level of GDP for each region.

Looking in more detail, the 2 largest German metropolitan regions, Berlin and the Ruhrgebiet, were almost the same size in terms of population and their levels of labour productivity; however, these weren’t – as in most other EU countries – among the highest productivity levels in the national economy. Indeed, there were 5 metropolitan regions in Germany that had a level of labour productivity that was above €100 000 per person employed, they were: Mainz, Ingolstadt, Braunschweig-Salzgitter-Wolfsburg, München and Heilbronn.

Paris appears a distinct outlier, as this megacity plays a prominent role in the French economy, accounting for by far the highest share of the national population and GDP, as well as the highest level of GDP per person employed. Paris had the second highest level of GDP per person employed among the EU’s metropolitan regions, behind Mainz in Germany.

The Polish and Romanian capitals of Warszawa and Bucureşti also recorded the highest shares of their national populations and GDP, as well as the highest levels of GDP per person employed in each country.

In Italy, the population of the metropolitan region of Milano was slightly larger than in the capital of Roma, while Milano also had higher levels of GDP and labour productivity than the capital. In a similar vein, the 2 largest metropolitan regions of Spain – Madrid and Barcelona – also had values that were in quite close proximity of each other.

A set of six scatterplots showing the population level plotted against the ratio of GDP per person employed. Individual charts are shown for each of the six most populous EU countries: Germany, Spain, France, Italy, Poland and Romania. Within each chart, a plot is presented for the capital city metropolitan region and for the other metropolitan regions in that country. The size of each plot/bubble reflects its overall level of GDP. Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 5: Population and GDP per person employed in metropolitan regions, selected EU countries, 2021
Source: Eurostat (met_pjanaggr3), (met_10r_3gdp) and (met_10r_3emp)

There are many reasons that may explain the distribution and concentration of economic activities across the EU. Natural resource endowments may account for why some regions are particularly specialised in activities such as mining or forest-based activities. In a similar vein, the weather, location and landscape can help explain why others might be specialised in tourism-related activities. A critical mass of clients (either other enterprises or households/consumers) or the supply of skilled labour may also explain specialisations: for example, research parks tend to develop near to universities, whereas financial, communications and media services are often concentrated in capital city regions.

Enterprise birth rates are calculated as the number of enterprise births (when a company is started from scratch) divided by the total number of active enterprises. An enterprise birth occurs when new production factors, in particular new jobs, are created. In 2021, there were 3.4 million enterprises born in the EU’s business economy (as defined by NACE Sections B–N and P–R, as well as Divisions 95 and 96); the EU’s enterprise birth rate was 10.7%.

Some of the highest enterprise birth rates across the EU in 2021 were observed in dynamic regions, characterised by relatively high levels of economic performance. In 20 of the 23 EU countries for which data are available (see Figure 6), capital city metropolitan regions had enterprise birth rates that were higher than their respective national averages. Latvia, Malta and Slovenia were the only exceptions: in each case, the national enterprise birth rate was 0.2 percentage points higher than in the capital city metropolitan region.

  • In 2021, the highest enterprise birth rates among EU capital city metropolitan regions were recorded in Vilnius (Lithuania; 20.4%), Paris (France; 18.1%) and Lisboa (Portugal; 16.6%).
  • In 2021, the enterprise birth rate for the capital city metropolitan region was at least 1.8 percentage points higher than the national average in Italy, France, Germany and Portugal (where the largest gap was recorded, at 2.2 points).
A hi-lo chart showing the enterprise birth rate in the business economy. Plots are shown for capital city metropolitan regions and for the national average. Information is presented in percent. Data are shown for EU countries. Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 6: Enterprise birth rate in the business economy, capital city metropolitan regions, 2021
(%)
Source: Eurostat (met_bd_hgn2)

Figure 7 shows the 20 metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest levels of GDP per inhabitant in 2021 (8 of which were capital cities).

  • Across all metropolitan regions of the EU, the highest GDP per inhabitant was recorded in the southern Irish region of Cork (133 000 PPS); note that GDP doesn’t measure the income ultimately available to private households and that this figure is likely to be inflated by payments for the use of capital assets owned by multinational enterprises located in the region.
  • The 2nd and 3rd highest ratios were recorded in the Irish capital region of Dublin (89 400 PPS) and in Luxembourg (87 000 PPS; a single region within this typology), reflecting the financial focus of these regions economies and, in the case of Luxembourg, the impact of large inflows of commuters.
  • Of the remaining 17 metropolitan regions
    • 7 were located in Germany (note they didn’t include the capital of Berlin) with the highest levels of GDP per inhabitant observed in the metropolitan regions of Mainz (66 300 PPS) and München (65 300 PPS)
    • 6 were capital cities, with the highest level of GDP per inhabitant recorded in København (56 400 PPS)
    • Milano (Italy), Utrecht, Eindhoven (both the Netherlands) and Salzburg (Austria) also featured among the 20 metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest levels of GDP per inhabitant.
A bar chart showing GDP per inhabitant for selected metropolitan regions. Data are shown for the 20 metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest ratios for GDP per inhabitant. Information is presented in purchasing power standards (PPS). Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 7: GDP per inhabitant, selected metropolitan regions, 2021
(PPS)
Source: Eurostat (met_10r_3gdp)

In 2021, gross value added in the EU economy was €13.1 trillion. Market services (defined as NACE Sections G–N) accounted for just over half (50.4%) of all value added, while lower shares were recorded for non-market services (NACE Sections O–U; 22.1%) and industry (NACE Sections B–E; 20.2%); the residual share was divided between a number of other activities including agriculture, forestry and fishing as well as construction.

  • Cork in southern Ireland and Ingolstadt in southern Germany (where the headquarters of Audi is located) were the only metropolitan regions in the EU to report that more than half of their total value added was provided by industrial activities.
  • Half (10 out of 20) of the metropolitan regions with the highest shares of value added in industry were located in Germany.
  • Most of the other regions with high shares of their value added generated in industry were located in eastern EU countries, with Cork (Ireland), Reggio nell Emilia and Parma (both northern Italy) the exceptions. This pattern may reflect the EU’s industrial base having migrated eastwards, due to wide-ranging transformations such as outsourcing and globalisation.

Capital cities are among some of the most specialised regions for a range of market services that rely on the close proximity of a large number of potential clients (be these other businesses or households), for example, business services, professional, scientific and technical activities, advertising or market research. In 2021, the 20 metropolitan regions with the highest shares of value added generated within market services included 16 capitals

  • in Amsterdam (the Netherlands), Paris (France), Dublin (Ireland), Sofia (Bulgaria) and Luxembourg, the share of total value added provided by market services was within the range of 68.0–69.1%.
  • Frankfurt am Main (Germany), Milano (Italy), Palma de Mallorca (Spain) and München (also Germany) were the only non-capital metropolitan regions to appear among the most specialised regions for market services.

Some regions in the EU face significant structural challenges to improve their prosperity. These regions that have been ‘left behind’ are often characterised as former industrial heartlands and/or regions where non-market services (such as social welfare, health, education, and other general services provided by government) account for a relatively large share of the local economy. In 2021, the 20 metropolitan regions with the highest shares of value added generated within non-market services were principally located in western EU countries (Belgium, Germany, France and the Netherlands) as well as 4 southern regions of Italy.

Away from the French outermost Caribbean regions of Fort-de-France and Les Abymes, the highest shares of non-market services in total value added (above 35.0% in 2021) were recorded in Limoges (France), Namur (Belgium), Poitiers (also France) and s’ Gravenhage (the Hague; the Netherlands).

A set of three column charts showing gross value added for selected metropolitan regions. There is one chart for industry, one chart for market services and one chart for non-market services. For each of these, data are shown for the 20 metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest shares of total value added. Information is presented in percent. Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 8: Gross value added, selected metropolitan regions, 2021
(% share of total value added)
Source: Eurostat (met_10r_3gva)

High employment rates may enhance economic productivity, particularly when the labour market offers highly skilled and well-paid job opportunities. They may stimulate consumption and investment. Equally, high employment rates will likely lead to an increase in tax revenues, which may enable governments to invest in infrastructure, education and other sectors that promote economic growth.

Figure 9 examines the relationship between GDP per person employed and employment rates for metropolitan regions across the EU. It shows the 5 metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest/lowest ratios of GDP per person employed (shown in dark/light teal) and the 5 metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest/lowest employment rates (shown in dark/light gold). In 2021, there was a modest positive correlation between these 2 indicators.

  • Cork in Ireland was the metropolitan region with the highest level of GDP per person employed (284 300 PPS) and it had an employment rate of 74.0%.
  • Plovdiv in Bulgaria was the metropolitan region with the lowest level of GDP per person employed (29 100 PPS) and it had an employment rate of 70.2%.
  • Offenburg in Germany was the metropolitan region with the highest employment rate (85.8%) and its GDP per person employed was 67 900 PPS.
  • Napoli in Italy was the metropolitan region with the lowest employment rate (41.0%) and its GDP per person employed was 63 700 PPS.
A scatterplot showing GDP per person employed plotted against the employment rate for people aged 20–64 years. The figure shows the five metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest/lowest ratios of GDP per person employed and the five metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest/lowest employment rates. Information is presented in purchasing power standards (PPS) for GDP per person employed and in percent for the employment rate. Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 9: GDP per person employed and employment rate (20–64 years), selected metropolitan regions, 2021
Source: Eurostat (met_10r_3gdp) and (met_lfe3emprt)

In a similar vein to the information presented above, Figure 10 investigates the relationship between GDP per person employed and the share of working-aged people (aged 25–64 years) with a high/tertiary level of education. It is based on the premise that metropolitan regions with highly educated workforces are more likely to provide highly skilled and well-paid job opportunities that drive economic productivity. In 2021, there was a modest positive correlation between these 2 indicators.

  • Cork in Ireland was the metropolitan region with the highest level of GDP per person employed (284 300 PPS), with 52.3% of its working-age population having a high level of education.
  • Plovdiv in Bulgaria was the metropolitan region with the lowest level of GDP per person employed (29 100 PPS), with 26.0% of its working-age population having a high level of education.
  • Wroclaw in Poland was the metropolitan region with the highest share of its working-age population having a high level of education (61.8%), its GDP per person employed was 63 800 PPS.
  • Galați in Romania was the metropolitan region with the lowest share of its working-age population having a high level of education (6.8%), its GDP per person employed was 46 800 PPS.
A scatterplot showing GDP per person employed plotted against the share of people (25–64 years) with a high level of education. The figure shows the five metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest/lowest ratios of GDP per person employed and the five metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest/lowest shares of people with a high level of education. Information is presented in purchasing power standards (PPS) for GDP per person employed and in percent for the share of people with a high level of education. Annual data are presented for 2021. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 10: GDP per person employed and share of people (25–64 years) with a high level of education, selected metropolitan regions, 2021
Source: Eurostat (met_10r_3gdp) and (met_edat_lfse4)

Labour market

In 2023, the EU’s employment rate for working-age people (defined here as those aged 20–64 years) was 75.3%. National averages across the EU countries ranged from lows of 66.3% and 67.4% in Greece and Italy, respectively, to at least 80.0% in Hungary, Germany, Czechia, Malta, Estonia, Sweden and the Netherlands (where a peak of 83.5% was recorded).

Figure 11 contrasts employment rates in capital city metropolitan regions with national averages. In 2023, employment rates for working-age people were generally higher than the national average in capital city metropolitan regions.

  • The highest employment rates for capital city metropolitan regions of the EU were observed in Warszawa (86.5%), Bratislava (85.8%), Stockholm (85.2%) and Rīga (84.9%). The lowest rates were recorded in Bruxelles/Brussel (70.8%), Roma (70.4%) and Athina (69.6%).
  • Austria, Germany and Belgium were the only EU countries to record employment rates in their capital city metropolitan regions that were lower than the national average.
  • By contrast, employment rates in the capital city metropolitan regions of Slovakia, Poland and Romania were more than 8.0 percentage points above the national average.
A hi-lo chart showing the employment rate for people aged 20–64 years. Plots are shown for capital city metropolitan regions and for the national average. Data are shown for EU countries. Information is presented in percent. Annual data are presented for 2023. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 11: Employment rate (20–64 years), 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (met_lfe3emprt) and (lfsa_ergan)

Figure 12 shows information for the metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest and lowest employment rates; the data are presented for working-age people (20–64 years). In 2023, the highest employment rates were recorded in the German regions of Siegen (88.5%) and Görlitz (87.2%). The other regions with particularly high rates included

  • 3 more metropolitan regions from Germany – Mönchengladbach, Offenburg and Aschaffenburg
  • 3 metropolitan regions from the Netherlands – Leiden, Tilburg and Zwolle
  • 3 capital city metropolitan regions – Warszawa (Poland), Bratislava (Slovakia) and Stockholm (Sweden).

At the other end of the spectrum, the lowest employment rates across metropolitan regions of the EU were recorded in southern Italy. In 2023, Catania, Messina, Taranto, Palermo and Napoli all reported employment rates that were less than 50.0%; they were joined by the eastern Romanian region of Galați. The lowest employment rate among metropolitan regions was observed in Napoli (45.4%).

A barplot or lollipop chart showing the employment rate for people aged 20–64 years. Plots are shown for the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest employment rates and the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the lowest employment rates. Data are shown for metropolitan regions in the EU. Information is presented in percent. Annual data are presented for 2023. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 12: Employment rate (20–64 years), selected metropolitan regions, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (met_lfe3emprt)

Cities across the EU have signed the European Charter for Equality of Women and Men in Local Life, setting-up gender equality action plans. However, in practice, inequalities continue to exist between the sexes, with many women not enjoying the same rights as their male counterparts. This can be seen, for example, in terms of gender pay gaps, gender employment gaps, or the under-representation of women in managerial posts or leadership roles.

In 2023, the employment rate for working-age women (20–64 years) living in cities across the EU was 71.4%; this was 8.5 percentage points lower than the corresponding rate for men (79.9%). Figure 13 shows the 10 metropolitan regions in the EU with the largest and smallest gender employment gaps.

  • There were only 5 metropolitan regions where the employment rate for women was higher than that for men
    • Clermont-Ferrand, Nimes and Le Mans in France
    • Görlitz and Bielefeld in Germany.
  • There were 2 metropolitan regions where the employment rates for men and women were identical – Dijon in France and the Slovakian capital region of Bratislava.
  • In all of the remaining metropolitan regions of the EU, the male employment rate was higher than the female rate. There were 3 regions where the gender employment gap was wider than 30.0 percentage points: Taranto, Napoli (both Italy) and Galați (Romania). Relatively large gaps were also observed in several other Romanian and Italian metropolitan regions, as well as in the Greek region of Thessaloniki.

More generally, there remain considerable differences in employment rates between the sexes; this is particularly the case across eastern and southern EU countries. This may reflect, among other factors, the economic structure of local economies as well as cultural norms that promote the traditional role of women as carers and/or housewives.

A hi-lo chart showing the employment rate for people aged 20–64 years. Data are shown for the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the widest/narrowest gender employment gaps. Plots are shown for the employment rates of men and women. Information is presented in percent. Annual data are presented for 2023. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 13: Employment rates (20–64 years), by sex, selected metropolitan regions, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (met_lfe3emprt)

In 2023, there were 13.2 million unemployed people aged 15–74 years in the EU, while the unemployment rate was 6.1%. Figure 14 shows the highest and lowest unemployment rates among metropolitan regions across the EU.

  • More than 1 in 5 people in the labour force were unemployed in the southern Spanish regions of Cádiz (22.3%) and Grenada (20.5%), as well as in the southern Italian region of Napoli (20.8%).
  • Several other metropolitan regions had relatively high unemployment rates, including
    • 4 regions from Spain – the southern regions of Córdoba and Málaga - Marbella, and the island regions of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas
    • 2 regions located on the southern Italian island of Sicilia – Messina and Palermo
    • the French region of Les Abymes on Guadeloupe
    • Galați in eastern Romania.

At the other end of the range, the lowest unemployment rates for metropolitan regions in the EU were recorded in Germany and eastern EU countries. In 2023, there were 4 metropolitan regions that had unemployment rates that were less than 2.0%

  • the Czech capital region of Praha
  • the Polish capital region of Warszawa
  • 2 other regions located in Poland, namely, Kraków and Gdansk (which recorded the lowest rate, at 1.5%).
A barplot or lollipop chart showing the unemployment rate for people aged 15–74 years. Plots are shown for the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest unemployment rates and the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the lowest unemployment rates. Data are shown for metropolitan regions in the EU. Information is presented in percent, as a share of the labour force. Annual data are presented for 2023. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 14: Unemployment rate (15–74 years), selected metropolitan regions, 2023
(% share of labour force)
Source: Eurostat (met_lfu3rt)

Women across the EU are generally more likely (than men) to be in temporary, part-time or another form of precarious employment. This may explain, at least to some degree, why women tend to bear a disproportionate burden during times of recession (for example, the global financial and economic crisis or the COVID-19 crisis) with their unemployment rates rising at a faster pace. This pattern tends to be reversed when there are periods of economic growth.

In 2023, the unemployment rate for females aged 15–74 years living in cities across the EU was 6.8%; the corresponding rate for males was marginally lower, at 6.5%. Figure 15 shows the metropolitan regions of the EU with the largest gender unemployment gaps.

  • The left-hand side displays the metropolitan regions with the highest unemployment gender gaps where unemployment rates were higher for males (than for females); most of these regions were characterised by relatively low overall unemployment rates, while several were former industrial regions. Liège in Belgium had the largest gap, with a male unemployment rate of 11.1%, which was 3.7 percentage points higher than the female unemployment rate (7.4%). The next largest gaps were in Clermont-Ferrand (France), Uppsala (Sweden), Charleroi (Belgium), Pécs (Hungary) and the Latvian capital region of Rīga. As such, most of the metropolitan regions with higher male (than female) unemployment rates were located in western and northern EU countries, with Pécs being the only exception.
  • By contrast, the largest gender unemployment gaps (where unemployment rates were higher for females than for males) were often recorded in metropolitan regions that were characterised by relatively high overall unemployment rates. This was often the case for metropolitan regions located in southern EU countries. The biggest gaps were recorded in Thessaloniki (Greece), Granada and Córdoba (both Spain). Córdoba had the widest gender gap among metropolitan regions of the EU, with a female unemployment rate of 23.4%, which was 8.9 percentage points higher than the corresponding rate for males (14.5%).
A hi-lo chart showing the unemployment rate for people aged 15–74 years. Data are shown for the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest unemployment rates for males and the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest unemployment rates for females. Plots are shown for the unemployment rates of males and females. Information is presented in percent, as a share of the labour force. Annual data are presented for 2023. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 15: Unemployment rates (15–74 years), by sex, selected metropolitan regions, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (met_lfu3rt)

Some metropolitan regions – primarily in western EU countries – display an apparent paradox, insofar as they offer a broad range of employment opportunities, but are also characterised by relatively high unemployment rates, jobless households, poverty and social exclusion. This may be explained, at least in part, by some jobs being occupied by commuters from neighbouring regions. Figure 16 highlights the 10 metropolitan regions with the highest and lowest unemployment rates in 2023 (for people aged 15–74 years) relative to rates for non-metropolitan regions.

  • The highest rates – using this measure – were recorded in Galați and Napoli, where unemployment rates were 2.7 times as high as in the non-metropolitan regions of Romania and Italy, respectively.
  • Relatively high unemployment rates were observed in the capital city metropolitan regions of Wien (Austria) and Bruxelles/Brussel (Belgium).
  • 3 metropolitan regions in Sicilia (Italy) – Messina, Palermo and Catania – had relatively high unemployment rates.
  • 3 metropolitan regions in Région wallonne (Belgium) – Charleroi, Liège and Namur – had relatively high unemployment rates.

By contrast, some of the lowest relative unemployment rates – using this measure – were recorded in northern metropolitan regions of Italy and several regions in eastern EU countries. In 2023, unemployment rates in Bergamo, Verona (both Italy) and Bratislava (Slovakia) were less than 0.4 times as high as in their countries’ non-metropolitan regions.

A column chart showing the unemployment rate for people aged 15–74 years. Data are shown for the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest rates relative to non-metropolitan regions and for the ten metropolitan regions with the lowest rates relative to non-metropolitan regions. Information is presented as indices, with the unemployment rate for non-metropolitan regions equal to 100. Annual data are presented for 2023. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 16: Unemployment rate (15–74 years), selected metropolitan regions, 2023
(index, unemployment rate for non-metropolitan regions = 100)
Source: Eurostat (met_lfu3rt)

In 2023, there were 2.8 million unemployed young people aged 15–24 years in the EU; the youth unemployment rate was 14.5%. Figure 17 shows the 10 metropolitan regions with the highest and lowest differences in unemployment rates when compared with their respective national averages.

  • The youth unemployment rate in the metropolitan region of Taranto (Italy) was 54.3%, which was 31.6 percentage points higher than the national average for the whole of Italy (22.7%). As such, the youth unemployment rate in Taranto was 2.4 times as high as the average unemployment rate for Italy – the largest relative difference for any metropolitan region in the EU.
  • In relative terms, youth unemployment rates were approximately twice as high as the national average in 3 more southern Italian regions – Palermo, Napoli and Messina.
  • In absolute terms, youth unemployment rates were 19.7–23.5 percentage points higher than the national average in the metropolitan regions of Palermo, Napoli and Messina (all Italy), as well as Cádiz (Spain).
  • By contrast, youth unemployment rates in the northern Italian regions of Bergamo and Brescia were 13.9 and 10.1 percentage points lower, respectively, than the Italian national average – these were the biggest differences recorded among any of the metropolitan regions in the EU with a rate below the national average.
A bullet chart showing the youth unemployment rate for people aged 15–24 years. Data are shown for the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the highest youth unemployment rates and the ten metropolitan regions in the EU with the lowest youth unemployment rates. Plots are shown for metropolitan regions and columns are shown for the national average. Information is presented in percent, as a share of the labour force. Annual data are presented for 2023. The complete data of the visualisation are available in the Excel file at the end of the article.
Figure 17: Youth unemployment rate (15–24 years), selected metropolitan regions, 2023
(% share of labour force)
Source: Eurostat (met_lfu3rt)

Source data for tables and graphs

Context

Metropolitan regions constitute important poles of innovation, research and economic growth, while also offering a wide variety of educational, cultural and professional opportunities to their inhabitants. Policy challenges within the EU are increasingly spread across administrative borders, for example, cities and metropolitan regions generate spill-over effects for their surrounding areas. These can result in positive as well as negative impacts on socioeconomic developments, the environment and the quality of life.

Historically, metropolitan regions have been overlooked by EU cohesion policy, although a growing share of academic and political debate is now focused on the importance of these regions, as well how they interact with neighbouring rural communities. EU policymakers are taking steps to promote an integrated approach for local and territorial governance in order to deliver on initiatives such as the Circular Economy Action Plan or the European Green Deal.

Notes

  1. ↑ Note that some regions with very high levels of GDP are characterised by a strong presence of multinational enterprises and/or commuter flows and this may influence their levels of economic activity, especially if capital assets (for example technology patents) are domiciled in a region; the region of Cork is host to a number of the world’s top technology and pharmaceutical companies.

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  • Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 522/2014 of 11 March 2014 supplementing Regulation (EU) No 1301/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to the detailed rules concerning the principles for the selection and management of innovative actions in the area of sustainable urban development to be supported by the European Regional Development Fund
  • Regulation (EU) No 1305/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD)
  • Regulation (EU) No 1310/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 laying down certain transitional provisions on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD)

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