Migration to and from the EU

Data extracted in March 2025.

Planned article update: March 2026.

Highlights

4.3 million people migrated to the EU from non-EU countries in 2023, a decrease of around 18% (around 1 million) compared with 2022.

1.5 million people previously residing in one EU country migrated to another EU country in 2023.

1.5 million people emigrated from an EU country to a country outside the EU in 2023, an increase of around 25% (around 0.3 million) compared with 2022.

Immigrants, 2023

This article presents European Union (EU) statistics on international migration flows. Migration is influenced by a combination of economic, environmental, political and social factors: either in a migrant's country of origin (push factors) or in the country of destination (pull factors). Historically, the relative economic prosperity and political stability of the EU are thought to have exerted a considerable pull effect on immigrants.

Migration flows: Immigration to the EU was 4.3 million in 2023

In 2023, 4.3 million immigrants came to the EU from non-EU countries and 1.5 million people previously residing in one EU country migrated to another EU country. This figure does not include asylum seekers and/or refugees from Ukraine under temporary protection for some countries (see Definitions and Methodological notes). Taking into account that 73 400 people with an unknown country of previous residence also migrated to an EU country, this makes a total of 5.9 million arrivals as a result of international immigration in 2023. On the other hand, about 3.0 million people emigrated to either another EU country or to a country outside the EU. Of them, about 1.5 million people were reported to have left an EU country to migrate to a country outside the EU.

In comparison, in 2022 there were, respectively, an estimated 5.3 million immigrants to the EU from non-EU countries and 1.5 million people previously residing in one EU country migrated to another EU country. About 1.2 million people emigrated from the EU to a country outside the EU in 2022. To summarise, between 2022 and 2023, a decrease of around 18% in the total number of immigrants to the EU from non-EU countries was observed, while emigration from the EU to non-EU countries increased by around 25%. Meanwhile, the total number of immigrants previously residing in one EU country migrating to another EU country remained stable.

Figure 1: Immigrants from outside EU and emigrants to outside EU, EU, 2020–2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm12prv) and (migr_emi5nxt)

In 2023, Germany had the largest absolute number of immigrants and Malta the highest rate of immigration

Germany reported the largest total number of immigrants (1 271 200) in 2023, followed by Spain (1 251 000), Italy (439 700) and France (417 600). Spain and Germany also reported the highest number of emigrants in 2023 (respectively 608 700 and 574 200), followed by France (266 400), Romania (239 200) and Poland (194 100). In 2023, as in 2022, all 27 EU countries reported more immigration than emigration. Additionally, compared with 2022, 15 EU countries recorded a decrease in the total number of immigrants in 2023, while 12 EU countries recorded an increase. The highest decreases in relative terms between 2022 and 2023 were observed in Czechia (59.1%), Latvia (51.7%) and Estonia (46.6%), while the largest increases were observed in Finland (46.5%), Bulgaria (39.9%) and Cyprus (31.3%).

Figure 2: Immigrants, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm8) and (demo_pjan)

Relative to the size of the resident population, Malta recorded the highest rate of immigration in 2023 (76 immigrants per 1 000 persons), followed by Cyprus (43 immigrants per 1 000 persons) and Luxembourg (40 immigrants per 1 000 persons). For emigration, the highest rates in 2023 were reported for Malta (38 emigrants per 1 000 persons), Cyprus (28 emigrants per 1 000 persons) and Luxembourg (25 emigrants per 1 000 persons).

Sex distribution of immigrants to EU countries in 2023

In 2023, more men than women immigrated to EU countries (55.0% compared with 45.0%). In comparison, approximately the same proportion of men and women immigrated to EU countries in 2022 (50.2% compared with 49.8%). In 2023, in 23 of the 27 EU countries the majority of immigrants were men. The EU country reporting the highest share of male immigrants was Lithuania (74.9%), followed by Croatia (68.5%) and Romania (65.9%); in contrast, the highest share of female immigrants was reported in Ireland (53.5%), followed by Czechia (52.0%) and France (51.6%).

Figure 3: Immigrants by sex, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm8)

Immigration by country of previous residence

In 2023, in 24 of the 27 EU countries the majority of immigrants came from outside the EU. In 2022, in 25 of the 27 EU countries the majority of immigrants came from outside the EU.

Table 1: Immigration by country of previous residence, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm5prv)

Czechia recorded the largest share of immigrants coming from outside the EU (89.2% of its total number of immigrants in 2023), followed by Lithuania (88.9%) and Ireland (87.2%). On the other hand, Luxembourg reported the largest share of immigrants coming from another EU country (85.7% of its total number of immigrants in 2023), followed by Slovakia (57.5%) and Austria (48.4%).

Figure 4: Distribution of immigrants by country of previous residence, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm5prv)

Table 2 presents a summary of the 5 main countries of previous residence of immigrants for EU countries and EFTA countries (subject to data availability).

Table 2: Main countries of previous residence of immigrants, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm5prv)

Immigration by citizenship

In 2023, national immigrants (immigrants with the citizenship of the EU country to which they were migrating) made up more than half of the total number of immigrants only in Romania and Slovakia. Among non-national immigrants, citizens of non-EU countries outnumbered citizens of EU countries other than the one they were migrating to in all EU countries except Luxembourg.

Table 3: Immigration by citizenship, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm1ctz)

In 2023, the relative share of national immigrants within the total number of immigrants was highest in Romania (67.1% of all immigrants) and Slovakia (63.9%). By contrast, in Czechia, immigration of nationals represented 1.7% of total immigration.

Figure 5: Distribution of immigrants by citizenship, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm2ctz)

Immigrants were, on average, younger than the already resident population of EU countries. On 1 January 2024, the median age of the total population of the EU stood at 44.7 years, while it was 30.5 years for immigrants in 2023. For the EU as a whole, the non-national immigrants were younger than the national immigrants. The distribution by age of non-national immigrants shows, compared with national immigrants, a greater proportion of relatively young working age adults. The median age of national immigrants stood at 33.1 years and that of non-national immigrants was 30.1 years.

Figure 6: Age structure of immigrants by citizenship, EU, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm2ctz)

Immigration by country of birth

Information on citizenship has often been used to study immigrants with a foreign background. However, as citizenship can change over the lifetime of a person, it is also useful to analyse information by country of birth. In 2023, native-born immigrants made up more than half of the total number of immigrants only in Romania. Among foreign-born immigrants, immigrants born outside the EU outnumbered immigrants born in an EU country other than the one they were migrating to in all EU countries except Slovakia.

Table 4: Immigration by country of birth, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm3ctb)

The relative share of native-born immigrants within the total number of immigrants was highest in Romania (57.8% of all immigrants), followed by Latvia (35.5%) and Greece (33.9%). In contrast, Czechia (2.5% of all immigrants), Germany (3.9%) and Austria (4.4%) reported the lowest shares of native-born immigrants.

Figure 7: Distribution of immigrants by country of birth, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm4ctb)

The foreign-born immigrants were younger than the native-born immigrants in the EU. The distribution by age of foreign-born immigrants shows, compared with native-born immigrants, a greater proportion of relatively young working age adults. The median age of native-born immigrants stood at 33.8 years and that of foreign-born immigrants was 30.1 years.

Figure 8: Age structure of immigrants by country of birth, EU, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm4ctb)

Source data for tables and graphs

Migration to and from the EU: tables and figures

Data sources

Emigration is particularly difficult to measure. It is harder to keep track of people leaving a country than those arriving, because for a migrant it is very often much more important to interact about his/her migration with the authorities of the receiving country than with those of the country he/she is leaving. An analysis comparing 2019 immigration with emigration data from EU countries (mirror statistics) confirmed that this was true in many countries — as a result, this article focuses on immigration data.

Eurostat produces statistics on a range of issues related to international migration flows, non-national population stocks and the acquisition of citizenship. Data are collected on an annual basis and are supplied to Eurostat by the national statistical authorities of EU countries and EFTA countries.

Data in this article are rounded to the nearest hundred.

Legal Sources

Since 2008 the collection of migration and international protection data has been based on Regulation (EC) No 862/2007 and the analysis and composition of the EU, EFTA and candidate countries groups as of 1 January of the reference year are given in the implementing Commission Regulation (EU) No 351/2010. This defines a core set of statistics on international migration flows, population stocks of foreigners, the acquisition of citizenship, residence permits, asylum and measures against illegal entry and stay. Although EU countries may use any appropriate data sources according to national availability and practice, the statistics collected under the Regulation must comply with common definitions and concepts. Most EU countries base their statistics on administrative data sources such as population registers, registers of foreigners, registers of residence or work permits, health insurance registers and tax registers. Some countries use mirror statistics (for example, country X may use for immigration from country Y the emigration flows reported by country Y as coming from country X), sample surveys or estimation methods to produce migration statistics.

As stated in Article 2.1(a), (b), (c) of Regulation (EC) No 862/2007, immigrants who have been residing (or who are expected to reside) in the territory of an EU Member State for a period of at least 12 months are included in the statistics, as are emigrants living abroad for more than 12 months. Therefore, data collected by Eurostat concern migration for a period of 12 months or longer. Migrants therefore include people who have migrated for a period of one year or more as well as persons who have migrated on a permanent basis. Data on acquisitions of citizenship are collected by Eurostat under the provisions of Article 3.1.(d) of Regulation 862/2007, which states that: 'Member States shall supply to the Commission (Eurostat) statistics on the numbers of (…) persons having their usual residence in the territory of the Member State and having acquired during the reference year the citizenship of the Member State (…) disaggregated by (…) the former citizenship of the persons concerned and by whether the person was formerly stateless'.

Definitions:

Age:

Concerning the definitions of age for migration flows, 2023 data concern the respondent's age reached or age at the end of the reference year for all EU countries with the exception of Ireland, Greece, Malta, Austria, Romania and Slovenia. In these countries data concern the respondent's age completed or on their last birthday.

EU countries and EFTA countries by inclusion/exclusion of asylum seekers and refugees in the data on migration reported to Eurostat in the framework of the Eurostat Population Statistics data collection for Reference Year 2023

Migration for 2023	Included	Excluded
Asylum seekers usually resident for at least 12 months	Belgium, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Slovenia, Norway, Switzerland	Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Liechtenstein
Refugees usually resident for at least 12 months	Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland
Refugees from Ukraine who benefit from temporary protection in the EU (¹)	Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland	Poland, Slovakia, Sweden, Liechtenstein

(¹) On 4 March 2022, the European Council unanimously adopted an implementing decision introducing temporary protection to offer quick and effective assistance to people fleeing the war in Ukraine. Temporary protection is an exceptional measure to provide immediate and temporary protection to displaced persons from non-EU countries and those unable to return to their country of origin. It applies when there is a risk that the standard asylum system will struggle to cope with demands stemming from a mass inflow, risking a negative impact on the processing of claims. See Legislation for additional information.

Refugee: The term does not solely refer to persons granted refugee status (as defined in Art.2(e) of Directive 2011/95/EC within the meaning of Art.1 of the Geneva Convention relating to the Status of Refugees of 28 July 1951, as amended by the New York Protocol of 31 January 1967) but also to persons granted subsidiary protection (as defined in Art.2(g) of Directive 2011/95/EC) and persons covered by a decision granting authorisation to stay for humanitarian reasons under national laws concerning international protection.

Asylum seeker: First-time asylum applications are country-specific and imply no time limit. Therefore, an asylum seeker can apply for the first time in a given country and afterwards again as first-time applicant in any other country. If an asylum seeker lodges once more an application in the same country after any period of time, (s)he is not considered again a first-time applicant.

Methodological notes:

Guidance on the inclusion of refugees from Ukraine who benefit from temporary protection in the EU in the usually resident population: persons from Ukraine granted temporary protection should be counted as part of the usually resident population. Based on this, those who arrived from Ukraine and were granted temporary protection during the year – and who are believed to still be present at the end of the year – should be counted as immigrants during the year and as part of the migrant stock at the end of the reference period.

Context

Citizens of EU countries have freedom to travel and freedom of movement within the EU's internal borders. Migration policies within the EU in relation to citizens of non-member countries are increasingly concerned with attracting a particular migrant profile, often in an attempt to alleviate specific skills shortages. Selection can be carried out on the basis of language proficiency, work experience, education and age. Alternatively, employers can make the selection so that migrants already have a job upon their arrival.

Besides policies to encourage labour recruitment, immigration policy is often focused on 2 areas: preventing unauthorised migration and the illegal employment of migrants who are not permitted to work, as well as promoting the integration of immigrants into society. Significant resources have been mobilised to fight people smuggling and trafficking networks in the EU.

Within the European Commission, the Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs is responsible for the European migration policies.

For more information please see the new Pact on Migration and Asylum

Explore further

Database

Thematic section

Publications

Methodology

International migration statistics (ESMS metadata file — migr_immi_esms)
Population (ESMS metadata file — demo_pop_esms)
Acquisition and loss of citizenship (ESMS metadata file — migr_acqn_esms)

External links

Legislation

In 2005, the European Commission relaunched the debate on the need for a common set of rules for the admission of economic migrants with a Green paper on an EU approach to managing economic migration (COM(2004) 811 final) which led to the adoption of a policy plan on legal migration (COM(2005) 669 final) at the end of 2005. In July 2006, the European Commission adopted a Communication on policy priorities in the fight against illegal immigration of third-country nationals (COM(2006) 402 final), which aims to strike a balance between security and an individuals' basic rights during all stages of the illegal immigration process. In September 2007, the European Commission presented its third annual report on migration and integration (COM(2007) 512 final). A European Commission Communication adopted in October 2008 emphasised the importance of strengthening the global approach to migration: increasing coordination, coherence and synergies (COM(2008) 611 final) as an aspect of external and development policy. The Stockholm programme, adopted by EU heads of state and government in December 2009, set a framework and series of principles for the ongoing development of European policies on justice and home affairs for the period 2010 to 2014; migration-related issues are a central part of this programme. In order to bring about the changes agreed upon, the European Commission enacted an action plan implementing the Stockholm programme – delivering an area of freedom, security and justice for Europe's citizens (COM(2010) 171 final) in 2010.

In May 2013, the European Commission published the 'EU Citizenship Report 2013' (COM(2013) 269 final). The report noted that EU citizenship brings new rights and opportunities. Moving and living freely within the EU is the right most closely associated with EU citizenship. Given modern technology and the fact that it is now easier to travel, freedom of movement allows Europeans to expand their horizons beyond national borders, to leave their country for shorter or longer periods, to come and go between EU countries to work, study and train, to travel for business or for leisure, or to shop across borders. Free movement potentially increases social and cultural interactions within the EU and closer bonds between EU citizens. In addition, it may generate mutual economic benefits for businesses and consumers, including those who remain at home, as internal obstacles are steadily removed.

The European Commission presented a European Agenda on Migration (COM(2015) 240 final) outlining immediate measures to be taken in order to respond to the crisis situation in the Mediterranean as well as steps to be taken in the coming years to better manage migration in all its aspects on 13 May 2015.

The European migration network started publishing in 2016 annual reports on migration. They provide an overview of the main legal and policy developments taking place across the EU as a whole and within participating countries. They are comprehensive documents and covers all aspects of migration and asylum policy by the European Commission's Migration and Home Affairs and EU agencies.

On 15 November 2017, the updated European Agenda on Migration focused on the refugee crisis, a common visa policy and Schengen. Matters included resettlements and relocations, financial support to Greece and Italy, and facilities for refugees. Objectives included enabling refugees to reach Europe through legal and safe pathways, ensuring that relocation responsibility is shared fairly between EU countries, integrating migrants at local and regional levels.

On 4 December 2018, the Commission published a progress report on the implementation of the European Agenda on Migration, examining progress made and shortcomings in the implementation of the European Agenda on Migration. Focusing on how climate change, demography and economic factors create new reasons pushing people to move, it confirmed that the drivers behind migratory pressure on Europe were structural, thus making it all the more essential to deal with the matter efficiently and uniformly.

On 16 October 2019, the Commission published a progress report on the implementation of the European Agenda on Migration, focusing on key steps required on the Mediterranean routes in particular, as well as actions to consolidate the EU's toolbox on migration, borders and asylum.

On 23 September 2020, the Commission presented a New Pact on Migration and Asylum, setting out a fairer, more European approach to managing migration and asylum. It aims to put in place a comprehensive and sustainable policy, providing a humane and effective long-term response to the current challenges of irregular migration, developing legal migration pathways, better integrating refugees and other newcomers, and deepening migration partnerships with countries of origin and transit for mutual benefit. In December 2023, the European Parliament and the Council reached political agreement on the New Pact on Migration and Asylum. The New Pact on Migration and Asylum was adopted on 22 May 2024.

On 4 March 2022, the European Council unanimously adopted an implementing decision introducing temporary protection to offer quick and effective assistance to people fleeing the war in Ukraine. On 25 June 2024, the Council extended temporary protection until 4 March 2026. Temporary protection is an exceptional measure to provide immediate and temporary protection to displaced persons from non-EU countries and those unable to return to their country of origin. It applies when there is a risk that the standard asylum system will struggle to cope with demands stemming from a mass inflow, risking a negative impact on the processing of claims. The Commission created a solidarity platform to coordinate the reception of displaced people in the Member States. The EU Migration Preparedness and Crisis Management Mechanism Network, which gathers and disseminates information on the latest developments, strengthened the EU's collective response.

Some of the most important legal texts adopted in the area of immigration include:

Article 20 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union Union law on EU citizens;
Article 21 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union on EU citizens;
Article 79 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union on border checks, asylum and immigration for third country nationals;
Directive 2003/09/EC on reception conditions for asylum seekers;
Directive 2003/86/EC on the right to family reunification;
Directive 2003/109/EC on a long-term resident status for non-member nationals;
Directive 2003/110/EC on assistance in cases of transit for the purposes of removal by air;
Directive 2004/38/EC on the right of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States;
Directive 2004/81/EC on victims of trafficking;
Directive 2004/82/EC on the obligation of carriers to communicate passenger data;
Directive 2004/83/EC on qualification;
Directive 2004/114/EC on the admission of students;
Directive 2005/71/EC for the facilitation of the admission of researchers into the EU;
Regulation (EC) No 862/2007 on migration and international protection;
Directive 2008/115/EC for returning illegally staying third-country nationals;
Directive 2009/50/EC concerning the admission of highly skilled migrants;
Directive 2009/52/EC concerning employer sanctions;
Directive 2011/95/EC on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status of refugees eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content for the protection granted;
Directive 2011/98/EU on single application procedure for a single permit for third-country nationals to reside and work in the territory of a Member State and on a common set of rights for third-country workers legally residing in a Member State;
Directive 2013/32/EU on common procedures for granting and withdrawing international protection;
Directive 2013/33/EU on standards for the reception of applicants for international protection;
Regulation (EU) No 603/2013 EURODAC Regulation on law enforcement access to the EU fingerprint database of asylum seekers under strictly limited circumstances, in order to prevent, detect or investigate the most serious crimes, such as murder and terrorism;
Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the EU Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in 1 of the Member States by a third-country national (national of a non-member country) or stateless person (Dublin Regulation);
Directive 2014/36/EU on seasonal workers;
Directive 2014/54/EU on freedom of movement of workers;
Directive 2014/66/EU on intra-corporate transferees;
Directive 2014/67/EU on posted workers;
Directive 2016/801/EU on students and researchers;
Regulation (EU) 2020/851 amending Regulation (EC) No 862/2007;
Council Implementing Decision (EU) 2022/382 of 4 March 2022 establishing the existence of a mass influx of displaced persons from Ukraine within the meaning of Article 5 of Directive 2001/55/EC, and having the effect of introducing temporary protection.

For more information please see the New pact on Migration and Asylum