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Data extracted in November 2024

Planned article update: December 2025

Highlights

The number of full-time equivalent researchers in the EU increased by more than 45% between 2013 and 2023, from 1.48 to 2.15 million.

More than half (56.6%) of full-time equivalent researchers in the EU worked in business enterprises, 31.8% in higher education and 10.2% in the government sector in 2023.

Horizontal bar chart showing R and D personnel by sector as percentage of total employment, based on full-time equivalents in the EU, euro area, individual EU countries, EFTA countries and some candidate countries. Each country bar has four queues representing business enterprise sector, government sector, higher education sector and private non-profit sector for the year 2023.
R&D personnel by sector, 2023
(% of total employment, based on full-time equivalents)

This article analyses preliminary data for 2023 on research and development (R&D) personnel, researchers, human resources in science and technology (HRST) and doctorate/PhD students in the European Union (EU). Statistics on science and technology personnel are key indicators for measuring the knowledge-based economy and its developments, for example, providing information on the supply of and demand for, highly qualified science and technology specialists.

Researchers

The number of researchers in the EU has increased in recent years: there were 2.15 million researchers (in full-time equivalents (FTE)) employed in the EU in 2023 (see Figure 1), which marked an increase of 672 000 when compared with 2013. The number of researchers (FTE) almost doubled in Poland and in Greece and it increased by more than 70% in Belgium (79.6%), Cyprus (78.9%), Hungary (76.6%) and Sweden (70.7%) between 2013 and 2023. At the opposite end of the range, with small growth rates were Latvia (13.7%) and Romania (11.7%).

Among the non-EU member countries shown in Figure 1, the number of researchers in China (excluding Hong Kong) reached 2.64 million in 2023. There was a rapid growth noted in China, up overall by more than two-thirds (77.7%) compared with 2013. South Korea also recorded a rapid increase in the number of researchers (up overall by 51.9%). In the United States the growth rate was 38.1% (2021 data). The number of researchers rose by 6.8% in Japan between 2013 and 2023. Among the candidate countries, the number of researchers in Türkiye more than doubled during the period 2013-2022.

Horizontal bar chart showing number of researchers as thousand full time equivalents in the EU, euro area, individual EU countries, EFTA countries, some candidate countries, China except for Hong Kong, United States, Japan and South Korea. Each country has two bars representing the years 2013 and 2023.
Figure 1: Number of FTE researchers, 2013 and 2023 (thousand full-time equivalents)
Source: Eurostat (rd_p_persocc) and OECD database

An analysis of R&D personnel by sector in 2023 (see Figure 2) shows that in the EU there was a high concentration of researchers in the business enterprise sector (56.6%) and the higher education sector (31.8%), while 10.2% of the total number of researchers were working in the government sector. The relative importance of the different sectors varied considerably across the EU countries, with business sector accounting for three-fifths or more of all researchers in Sweden, the Netherlands, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, Germany and France. By contrast, the countries with the highest share of researchers working in the government sector were Romania (32.8%), Bulgaria (29.5%) and Luxembourg (23.0%). A majority of researchers working in Latvia (55.1%), Croatia (51.9%), Lithuania (51.3%), and Greece (50.4%) were employed within the higher education sector. This sector also accounted for a high share (although less than 50%) of all researchers in Portugal, Cyprus, Slovakia, Ireland, Malta, Luxembourg Spain and Estonia. In terms of its number of researchers, the private non-profit sector was the smallest in all EU countries, its highest share (10.7% of all researchers) was recorded in Cyprus, while the next highest shares were in Italy (3.1%) and Germany (2.5%). In the remaining 22 countries for which the data for this sector are available, it ranged between 0.0% and 1.9%.

Horizontal bar chart showing researchers by sector as percentage of total number of researchers based on full time equivalents in the EU, euro area, individual EU countries, EFTA countries, some candidate countries, China except for Hong Kong, United States, Japan and South Korea. Totalling 100 percent, each country bar has four queues representing business enterprise sector, government sector, higher education sector and private non-profit sector for the year 2022.
Figure 2: Researchers by sector, 2023 (% share of total number of researchers, based on full-time equivalents)
Source: Eurostat (rd_p_persocc) and OECD database

An analysis by sex shows that men accounted for approximately two-thirds (66.3%) of the EU's researchers in 2021 (expressed in head count). The share of women in the total number of researchers was close to parity in Latvia, Croatia, Lithuania, Bulgaria and Romania, all above 45% (see Figure 3). The gender gap was the largest in Czechia, Hungary, Germany, France and Luxembourg where women made up less than 30% of all researchers.

Horizontal bar chart showing researchers by sex as percentage of total number of researchers based on head count in the EU, euro area, individual EU countries, EFTA countries, some candidate countries, Japan and South Korea. Totalling 100 percent, each country bar has two queues representing women and men for the year 2021.
Figure 3: Researchers by sex, 2021 (% share of total number of researchers, based on head count)
Source: Eurostat (rd_p_persocc) and OECD database


R&D personnel

R&D personnel in all sectors together accounted for more than 2.0% of the total employment in Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Austria and the Netherlands, compared with an EU average of 1.7%. (Note: these figures are based on information in full-time equivalents.) Aside from the above countries mentioned, the share of R&D personnel in the total employment ranged from 0.5% in Romania and Cyprus to 1.9% in Germany (see Figure 4).

Horizontal bar chart showing R and D personnel by sector as percentage of total employment, based on full-time equivalents in the EU, euro area, individual EU countries, EFTA countries and some candidate countries. Each country bar has four queues representing business enterprise sector, government sector, higher education sector and private non-profit sector for the year 2023.
Figure 4: R&D personnel by sector, 2023 (% share in employment, based on full-time equivalents)
Source: Eurostat (rd_p_perslf)


Human resources in science and technology

Human resources in science and technology (HRST) provide information concerning the demand for and the supply of people with high qualifications in science and technology. Around 78.3 million people in the EU were employed in science and technology (S&T) occupations in 2023, this made up one-third (35.9%) of the total labour force aged 15-74 years (see Figure 5). Persons in S&T occupations accounted for over half (57.3%) of the total labour force in Luxembourg in 2023 and for more than one quarter in Sweden (47.7%), the Netherlands (46.6%), Denmark (44.3%), Finland (42.5%), Germany (41.0%), France (39.0%) and Belgium (38.9%). By contrast, the lowest shares of people working in science and technology occupations were recorded in Romania (23.2%), Greece (25.7%), Bulgaria (27.0%) and Spain (27.7%).

The concept of human resources in science and technology in the Canberra manual is based on a broad understanding of science. HRST by education covers all fields of study, in other words anybody who successfully completed a tertiary level education. The HRST 'core' (HRSTC) — which is made up of people who possess a tertiary level education and who are employed in science and technology occupations — amounted to 53.5 million persons in 2023 across the whole EU and accounted for one-quarter (24.5%) of the total labour force. Concerning the HRST 'core', Romania (16.2%), Italy (17.3%), and Slovakia (19.4%) were the EU countries reporting the lowest figures of their labour force in that category in 2023. At the other end of the scale, HRSTC accounted for more than one-quarter of the labour force in Luxembourg (45.4%), Sweden (34.2%), Belgium (31.6%), Ireland (30.7%), Denmark (30.4%), Finland (30.4%), the Netherlands (30.3%), Cyprus (30.1%), Lithuania (29.6%), France (29.2%), Poland (27.4%), Estonia (26.0%) and Slovenia (25.7%), (see Figure 5).

Horizontal bar chart showing human resources in science and technology as percentage of active population aged 15-74 years in the EU, euro area, individual EU countries, EFTA countries and some candidate countries. Each country has two bars representing HRSTO people working in an S and T occupation and HRSTC people who have a tertiary education and work in an S and T occupation for the year 2023.
Figure 5: Human resources in science and technology, 2023 (% share of active population aged 15-74 years)
Source: Eurostat (hrst_st_ncat)

Between 2013 and 2023 there was a considerable increase in the relative importance of people classified as HRST 'core' within the EU's labour force, as their share rose by 5.8 percentage points (pp) (see Figure 6) from 18.7% to 24.5% in 2023. In fact, this share increased in all EU countries. The largest increases in the relative importance of the HRST core workforce were recorded in Austria (9.8 pp), Sweden (8.9 pp), Cyprus (8.8 pp), Poland (8.7 pp), Portugal (8.5 pp), Luxembourg (8.3 pp), the Netherlands (8.1 pp) and France (7.7 pp).

Horizontal bar chart showing people with tertiary education and employed in science and technology as percentage of active population aged 15 to 74 years in the EU, euro area, individual EU countries, EFTA countries and some candidate countries. Each country has two bars representing the years 2013 and 2023.
Figure 6: People who have a tertiary education and work in a science and technology occupation, 2013 and 2023 (% share of active population aged 15-74 years)
Source: Eurostat (hrst_st_ncat)

Science and technology graduates

Moving away from the broad definitions of HRST, Figures 7 and 8 look at the international standard classification of education (ISCED) levels 5-8 (tertiary education) in the field of science and technology covering natural sciences, mathematics and statistics; information and communication technologies; engineering, manufacturing and construction. Within the EU (2022 data), there were 23.0 graduates of these science and technology fields of education per 1 000 persons aged 20 to 29 years. Among the EU countries (2022 data), relatively high ratios — above 20.0 graduates per 1 000 persons aged 20 to 29 years — were recorded in Ireland, France, Finland, Denmark, Germany, Austria, Spain, Portugal, Slovenia, Croatia, Greece and Sweden. In Ireland this ratio peaked at 40.1 graduates per 1 000 persons aged 20 to 29 years. This ratio should be interpreted with care as some graduates reported by a country may be foreigners who return home following their studies and so push up the ratio in the country where they studied and pull down the ratio for their country of origin. This may explain to a large extent the very low ratio recorded in some of the smallest EU countries, namely Luxembourg (5.6 graduates from science and technology fields of education per 1 000 persons aged 20 to 29), Malta (11.6) and Cyprus (10.6).

Horizontal bar chart showing science and technology graduates with tertiary graduate levels 5 to 8 per 1000 persons aged 20 to 29 years in the EU, individual EU countries, EFTA countries and some candidate countries. Each country has two bars representing the years 2013 and 2022.
Figure 7: Science and technology graduates, 2013 and 2022 (tertiary graduates-levels 5-8, in natural sciences, mathematics and statistics; information and communication technologies; engineering, manufacturing and construction per 1 000 persons aged 20-29 years)
Source: Eurostat (educ_uoe_grad04)

An analysis by sex of graduates in natural sciences, mathematics and statistics; information and communication technologies; engineering, manufacturing and construction shows that men (aged 20-29 years) are more likely to graduate in these fields than women. In 2022, the EU registered 28.9 male tertiary graduates in science and technology per 1 000 men aged 20-29 years and 16.7 female tertiary graduates per 1 000 women of the same age, a difference of 12.2 per 1 000. A gender gap was observed in all EU countries in 2022, ranging from 4.0 per 1 000 in Luxembourg and 4.3 per 1 000 in Romania to 21.9 per 1 000 in Ireland.

Horizontal bar chart showing science and technology graduates by sex with tertiary graduate levels 5 to 8 per 1000 persons aged 20 to 29 years in the EU, individual EU countries, EFTA countries and some candidate countries. Each country has two bars representing women and men for the year 2022.
Figure 8: Science and technology graduates by sex, 2022 (tertiary graduates- levels 5-8 in natural sciences, mathematics and statistics; information and communication technologies; engineering, manufacturing and construction per 1 000 persons aged 20-29 years)
Source: Eurostat (educ_uoe_grad04)

Doctoral students

A similar but more specific measure of a country's potential research capability is provided by the number of doctoral (PhD) students (see Figure 9). In 2022, there were an estimated 670 000 doctoral students in the EU. Women accounted for slightly less than half (an estimated 49.0%) of doctoral students in the EU in 2022.

The gender split of doctoral students across the EU countries was typically quite balanced: women accounted for more than half of all the doctoral students in 15 out of the 27 EU countries in 2022, their share peaking at 56.8% in Lithuania, 56.7% in Cyprus, and at 54.9% in Ireland. Among the 12 EU countries where a higher number of male than female PhD students was observed, the share of men peaked at 56.8% in Luxembourg and at 55.9% in Czechia and 55.7% in Malta.

Horizontal bar chart showing number of PhD students by sex as thousands in the EU, individual EU countries, EFTA countries and some candidate countries. Each country has two bars representing women and men for the year 2022.
Figure 9: Number of PhD students by sex, 2022 (thousands)
Source: Eurostat (educ_uoe_enrt01)

In relative terms, the broad group covering science and technology accounted for 40.4% of the doctoral students in the EU in 2022.

Among the EU countries, natural sciences, mathematics and statistics; information and communication technologies; engineering, manufacturing and construction fields of education accounted for more than half of all doctoral students only in Luxembourg (63.8%) and Italy (53.1%). These fields were also very popular among students in France, Estonia, Czechia, Lithuania, Croatia, Ireland, Belgium, Poland, Sweden and Germany where the shares ranged between 49.3% and 40.4%. The lowest proportion of PhD students in S&T fields of education was recorded in Malta (12.4%), Bulgaria (24.7%) and the Netherlands (31.0% 2021 data). The other fields of education for doctoral studies in the EU ranked in terms of popularity were health, welfare and services (21.1%), social science, business and law (18.9%) education, arts and humanities (16.8%), and agriculture and veterinary (2.6%).

Horizontal bar chart showing PhD students by field of education as percentage of total PhD students in the EU, individual EU countries, EFTA countries and some candidate countries. Totalling 100 percent, each country bar has five queues representing science and technology, social science, business and law, education arts and humanities, health and welfare, services, agriculture and veterinary and lastly, unknown for the year 2022.
Figure 10: PhD students by field of education, 2022 (% of total PhD students)
Source: Eurostat (educ_uoe_enrt03)

Source data for tables and graphs

Data sources

R&D personnel

Statistics on R&D personnel are compiled using guidelines laid out in the 7th edition of the Frascati manual, published in 2015 by the OECD; the manual was updated with improved guidelines reflecting changes in the way that R & D is funded and carried out — see the Frascati manual 2015.

R&D personnel include all persons employed directly within R&D, as well as persons supplying direct services (such as managers, administrative staff and clerical staff). For statistical purposes, indicators on R&D personnel are compiled as both head counts (HC) and as full-time equivalents (FTEs).

Researchers are a subcategory of R&D personnel and are professionals engaged in the conception or creation of new knowledge. They conduct research and improve or develop concepts theories, models, techniques instrumentation, software, or operational methods (Frascati manual 2015, pp 162, paragraph 5.35).

Human resources in science and technology (HRST)

Statistics on human resources in science and technology (HRST) are compiled using guidelines laid out in the Canberra manual, prepared in cooperation between the OECD, European Commission, UNESCO and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and published in 1995. HRST data can be analysed by sex, age, region, sector of activity, occupation, educational attainment and fields of education (although not all combinations are possible). Data relating to stocks of HRST provide information on the number of HRST at a particular point in time, these stock data relate to the employment status as well as the occupational and educational profiles of individuals.

HRST based on education (HRSTE) are persons having successfully completed tertiary education, defined as levels 5, 6, 7 or 8 of the 2011 version of the international standard classification of education (ISCED). Previously it was defined as levels 5 (a or b) or 6 of the 1997 version of ISCED.

HRST based on occupation (HRSTO) are persons who are employed in science and technology occupations as 'professionals' or 'technicians and associate professionals' within the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO).

Persons who fulfil both the education and the occupation criteria are classified as the HRST 'core' (HRSTC).

Information on HRST flows from education are obtained from a UNESCO/OECD/Eurostat questionnaire on education and can be used to provide a measure of the current and future supply of HRST from the education system, in terms of actual inflows (graduates from the reference period) and potential inflows (students participating in higher education during the reference period).

Science, technology and innovation

Since the beginning of 2021, the collection of R&D statistics is based on Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 1197/2020 of 30 July 2020. Statistics on science, technology and innovation were collected based on Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 995/2012 concerning the production and development of Community statistics on science and technology until the end of 2020.

Science and technology graduates are defined as the number of new graduates from all public and private institutions completing science and technology related graduate and postgraduate studies in the reference year. To facilitate comparisons, the number of graduates may be expressed relative to the total number of persons aged 20-29 years and 25-29 years.

Doctoral students

Indicators based on the number of doctoral (PhD) students give an idea of the extent to which countries will have researchers at the highest level of education in the future. The data relate to the number of students in the reference year, they do not refer to the number of new graduates or to the total number (stock) of graduates in the labour market that year. The number of doctoral students is measured as students enrolled in ISCED 2011 level 8: this level concerns tertiary programmes which lead to the award of an advanced research qualification. Programmes at this ISCED level are devoted to advanced study and original research and are typically offered only by research-oriented tertiary educational institutions such as universities. Doctoral programmes exist in both academic and professional fields.

Context

The European Research Area (ERA) is composed of all research and development activities, programmes and policies in Europe which involve a transnational perspective and researchers' mobility.

The recent document Political Guidelines for the next European Commission 2024-2029, put investment in R&D 'at the centre of our economy. We will increase our research spending to focus more on strategic priorities [...]. Europe must also be at the cutting edge between emerging science, tech and industry, the nexus that will make this tech revolution faster and more transformative.'

These Political Guidelines reconfirm the May 2021 Communication Global Approach to Research and Innovation adopted by the European Commission (Communication on a Global Approach to Research and Innovation — Europe's strategy for international cooperation in a changing world (COM(2021) 252 final)) and the Communication on 'A new ERA for Research and Innovation' (COM/2020/628 final).

These programmatic documents underline the EU's desire to play a leading role in supporting international research and researchers' mobility, while delivering innovative solutions that support green and digital solutions in line with the sustainable development goals. It engages the EU to promote resilience, prosperity, competitiveness, economic and social well-being.

These documents reiterate the European Commission adopted Communication of May 2008 to launch an initiative titled, Better careers and more mobility: a European partnership for researchers (COM(2008) 317 final). The goal of this initiative was to improve the mobility of researchers and to enhance the diffusion of knowledge throughout Europe, by balancing demand and supply for researchers at a European level, helping create centres of excellence and improving the skills of researchers in Europe.

With this in mind, the EU and its Member States set-up a pan-European initiative — EURAXESS: researchers in motion — which is designed to deliver information and support researcher mobility and career development, while enhancing scientific collaboration between Europe and the world. The same gateway is also used to promote the European Commission's initiative titled Science4Refugees, which is designed to help refugee researchers find jobs and to support refugee scientists in finding European researchers with whom they may discuss problems, find solutions and study together.

In December 2008, the Competitiveness Council adopted a definition for a 2020 vision for the ERA. According to the opening statement of this vision, all players should benefit from: the 'fifth freedom', introducing the free circulation of researchers, knowledge and technology across the ERA; attractive conditions for carrying out research and investing in R & D intensive sectors; Europe-wide scientific competition, together with the appropriate level of cooperation and coordination. This vision is part of the wider goals contained within the Europe 2020 strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth.

In 2018 the Commission proposed an ambitious €100 billion research and innovation programme - Horizon Europe - to succeed Horizon 2020.

The Marie Sklodowska-Curie actions, aim to support the career development and training of researchers — with a focus on innovation skills — in all scientific disciplines through worldwide and cross-sector mobility.

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Other articles


Database


Research and development (research)
Statistics on research and development (rd)
R & D personnel at national and regional level (rd_p)
Human Resources in Science & Technology (hrst)
Stocks of HRST at national and regional levels (hrst_st)
Flows of HRST at national level (hrst_fl)
Participation in education and training (educ_part)
Pupils and students - enrolments (educ_uoe_enr)
Tertiary education (educ_uoe_enrt)
Education and training outcomes (educ_outc)
Graduates (educ_uoe_grad)

Thematic section


Publications


Selected datasets


Research and development (t_research)
Statistics on research and development (t_rd)
Total researchers by sectors of performance - head count (tsc00003)
Total researchers by sectors of performance - full time equivalent (tsc00004)
Research and development personnel, by sectors of performance (tsc00002)
Share of women researchers, all sectors (tsc00006)
Share of women researchers, by sectors of performance (tsc00005)
Human resources in Science & Technology (t_hrst)
Human resources in science and technology (HRST) (tsc00025)
Doctorate students in science and technology fields (tsc00028)
Education and training outcomes (t_educ_outc)
Science and technology graduates by sex (tps00188)

Methodology


External links


Legislation


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