Data extracted in May 2025
No planned article update
Highlights
Gross available energy by fuel, EU, 1990-2023
This article provides an overview of the energy economy in the European Union (EU) in 2023, based on annual data from each EU country. It provides trends for the main energy commodities for primary energy production, imports and exports, gross available energy and final energy consumption.
Gross available energy in the European Union continued its downward trend in 2023 (-4.1% compared with 2022 and -11.9% compared with 2013). Oil (crude oil and petroleum products) continued to be the most significant energy source for the European economy (37.6%), while natural gas remained the second largest energy source (20.4%). When comparing 2023 with 2022, oil increased by 2.0%, while natural gas decreased by 7.2%. This decrease was related to the demand-reduction measures taken as a consequence of the Russian war on Ukraine. Solid fossil fuels also decreased by 22.6%. Nuclear heat slightly increased (+1.6%), while the contribution of renewable energy sources continued its consistent, long-term growth (+4.5% compared with 2022 and +31.2% compared with 2013). Renewables already surpassed solid fossil fuels in 2018 and 2019, and gained further ground in 2020, 2022 and 2023, when it trailed natural gas by less than 1 percentage point.
Primary energy production
Primary production of energy within the EU in 2023 accounted for 23 159 petajoules (PJ), which is 1.7% lower than in 2022 and 19.9% lower than in 2013. Primary production decreased for solid fossil fuels and natural gas (-18.3 and -15.9%, respectively), remained relatively stable for oil (+0.5%), slightly increased for nuclear heat (+1.6%) and continued its long-term increasing trend for renewables and biofuels (Figure 1). Renewable energies accounted for the highest share in primary energy production in the EU in 2023 (46.0%), followed by nuclear heat (28.6%), solid fossil fuels (13.7%), natural gas (5.3%), oil and petroleum products (3.4%), and non-renewable waste (2.4%).
Over the past decade (2013-2023), the trend in primary energy production was generally negative for solid fossil fuels, oil, natural gas, and nuclear energy. The production of natural gas saw the sharpest decline (-70.5%), followed by solid fossil fuels and oil and petroleum products (with a drop of 46.4% and 35.9%, respectively). The production of renewable energies followed a clear positive trend over the same period, with a 30.7% increase, similarly to waste (non-renewable), which saw a 14.9% increase.
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Imports and exports
The decrease in primary energy production in the EU over the past decades resulted in increased imports of primary and secondary energy products. This increase slowed down in 2020 due to a weaker demand caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and increased again in 2021 and 2022, going down again in 2023. The quantity of imported natural gas almost doubled over the period 1990-2023, reaching 12 530 PJ (Figure 2), which is nevertheless the lowest level since 2015. Natural gas is the second largest imported energy product, after crude oil, which again ranked first in terms of quantities imported, with 19 982 PJ in 2023. This is 1.0% lower compared with a decade ago, and 7.0% lower compared with 2019 (last year before the COVID-19 pandemic).
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Exports were much lower than imports (Figure 3). In 2023, gas oil and diesel oil (around 4 014 PJ) ranked highest, followed by motor gasoline (2 929 PJ) and fuel oil (2 127 PJ).
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It should be noted that data for imports and exports include intra-EU trade.
Gross available energy
Gross available energy in the EU in 2023 reached 56 071 PJ, which is 4.1% lower than in 2023 (Figure 4) and 10.1% lower than in 1990.
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In the aftermath of the 2008 financial and economic crisis, gross available energy decreased by 6.1% in 2009 compared with the previous year, with the sharpest drop observed in solid fossil fuels (-11.4%), followed by oil and petroleum products (-6.3%) and natural gas (-6.0%) (Figure 5). After a recovery in 2010, with around 4.0% rise in gross available energy, consecutive decreases were observed until 2015, when the trend reversed again. However, 2018 and 2019 once again saw a drop in gross available energy, although not nearly as significant as the one registered in 2020. The increase observed in 2021 was due to a rebound from the pandemic. In 2022, partly due to the Russian war on Ukraine, there was another decrease, followed by yet another decrease in 2023, recording the lowest level of the whole time series (even lower than in 2020, the year of the COVID-19 pandemic).
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As for the structure of gross available energy in 2023, oil and petroleum products held the largest share (37.6%), followed by natural gas (20.4%), whereas solid fossil fuels represented 9.4%. In other words, 67.4% of all energy in the EU was produced from coal, oil and gas. Nuclear heat and renewable energies accounted for 11.8% and 19.5% of the total, respectively (Figure 6).
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The mix of fuels and their share in gross available energy in different countries depends on the natural resources available, the structure of a country's economy, as well as on the national choices and policies related to energy.
In 2023, the cumulated share of fossil fuels (i.e. coal, oil and gas) in gross available energy was below 40% only in 2 EU countries: Sweden 28.4% and Finland 32.9% (Figure 6).
In 2023, the share of solid fossil fuels in gross available energy was highest in Poland (34.6%) and Czechia (27.9%). The EU average stood at a much lower figure of 9.4% (Figure 6).
In 2023, oil shale and oil sands accounted for 52.5% of the gross available energy in Estonia, whereas the share of peat and peat products in Finland and Ireland was 1.8% and 1.7%, respectively.
The largest shares of oil and petroleum products in gross available energy were observed in Cyprus (86.3%), Malta (85.6%), and Luxembourg (61.1%). This is due to their specific national circumstances: Cyprus and Malta are small islands, while the consumption in Luxembourg is heavily affected by "fuel tourism", owing to relatively low prices of transport fuels.
The share of natural gas ranged from 34.8% in Italy to under 2% in Sweden and Cyprus. Natural gas was also a significant energy source in Hungary and The Netherland, with a share of almost 30%.
In Sweden, renewable energies accounted for more than half of their gross available energy in 2023 (50.2%), while in Denmark and Finland this figure stood at 43.0% and 39.6%, respectively). The lowest results in this respect were registered in Malta (2.2%), Belgium (9.8%) and Cyprus (11.1%).
In 2023, there were 13 EU countries with nuclear power plants. France had the highest nuclear share (39.1% of nuclear heat in gross available energy), followed by Slovakia (28.8%), Sweden (24.7%), Bulgaria (24.4%), and Finland (23.9%).
In Finland, Malta and Luxembourg, the gross available energy in 2023 reached over 230 Gigajoule (GJ) per capita, while in Romania it was under 70 GJ per capita (Map 1, Figure 7). This indicator is influenced by the structure of the industry in each country, the severity of winter weather, as well as other factors, such as fuel tourism in the case of Luxembourg. The EU average in 2023 stood at 125 GJ per capita.
(Gigajoule per capita)
Source: Eurostat (nrg_bal_s), (demo_pjan)
Between 1990 and 2023, the EU average decreased by 16.1%. However, at national level, the evolution varies. By far the largest increase in gross available energy per capita between 1990 and 2023 was observed in Malta (+160.2%), followed by Portugal (+20.7%), and Spain (+9.4%). The sharpest decreases were registered in Estonia (-52.7%), Germany (-45.9%), Lithuania (-42.3%) and Romania (-40.6%).
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Source: Eurostat (nrg_bal_s), (demo_pjan)
Note: Detailed information for all years can be found in the source file
Figure 8 shows the structural split of gross available energy in the EU by the main categories of the energy balance. In 2023, the biggest share of energy in the EU was used in energy transformation[1] (22.9%), followed by transport activities (21.5%), households (17.6%), the industry sector (16.5%), services (9.1%) and non-energy use (5.6%), while the remaining sectors accounted for 6.9%.
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Source: Eurostat (nrg_bal_c)
Final energy consumption
Final energy consumption in the EU in 2023 was 36 566 PJ, 3.3% less than in 2022 (Figure 9). Final energy consumption was slowly increasing from 1994 until it reached its highest value of 41 447 Mtoe in 2006. By 2023 final energy consumption decreased from its peak level by 11.8%.
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Between 1990 and 2023 the amount and share of solid fossil fuels in final energy consumption dropped significantly (from 9.6% in 1990 to 3.6% in 2000, 2.8% in 2010 and 1.7% in 2023). On the other hand, renewable energy sources increased their share in the total, moving from 4.3% in 1990 to 5.3% in 2000 and 8.8% in 2010, finally reaching 12.6% in 2023. However, this does not include electricity or purchased heat produced from renewable sources (which are classified as electricity and heat, respectively). Natural gas remained quite stable over this period, ranging from 18.8% in 1990 to 19.7% in 2023.
Oil and petroleum products accounted for the largest share (37.4%) in the structure of final energy consumption in 2023, followed by electricity (22.9%).
An analysis of the final end use of energy in the EU in 2023 reveals 3 dominant categories: transport (32.0%), households (26.3%), and industry (24.6%) (Figure 10).
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The total energy consumption of all transport modes[2] in the EU accounted for 11 695 PJ in 2023. There was a marked change in the development of energy consumption for transport after 2007. Until that year, the consumption was characterised by a steady growth, rising each year from the start of the time series in 1990. However, with the onset of the global financial and economic crisis in 2008, the consumption of energy for transport purposes fell by 1.4%. The decline continued until 2013. By 2014, this trend had reversed, and the increase in the consumption of energy for transport activities continued all the way to 2019 (when it was 30.8% higher than in 1990), although the 2007 levels were not reached. However, the biggest drop in energy consumption for transport was observed in 2020, -12.9% compared with 2019, mostly due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, 2022 and 2023, the trend reversed and a 11.0% increase was recorded in 2023 compared with 2020, but still below 2019 level.
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A similar analysis for all end uses (based on the period from 2007 onwards) reveals that EU final energy consumption for industry fell overall by 21.7% during the period between 2007 and 2023. The overall reduction in energy consumption for transport was 4.3%. Final energy consumption by services and households decreased by 6.6% and 8.0%, respectively.
There were considerable differences in the development of energy consumption across various transport modes, with a rapid growth for international aviation (90.9%) between 1990 and 2008 (Figure 12). However, 2009 was marked by a considerable reduction in energy consumption for this particular transport mode (-8.4% compared with 2008), followed by a short period without a clear development pattern in terms of energy consumption in international aviation. In the period between 2013 and 2019 there was a steady growth in consumption, causing the 2019 levels to be 20.1% higher than the previous relative peak in 2008. International aviation was, of course, the transport mode most severely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions. Compared with 2019, the energy consumed by international aviation almost halved (-48.6%) in 2021 and recovered in 2022 and 2023, but in 2023 it was still below 2019 levels by 8.2%.
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As shown in Figure 12, which compares the principal modes of transport in the period between 1990 and 2023, international aviation had the biggest growth until 2019, before dropping very prominently to slightly below 1990 levels in 2020, and then recovering in 2021, 2022 and 2023 to a similar level as in 2017. After a decline in 2020, road transport reported an increase in 2021 and 2022, remaining stable in 2023 to a level 30.0% higher than in 1990. Domestic aviation also reported an increase in energy consumption over the period 1990-2019 (33.9%), with a sharp decline in 2020 (-11.8% decrease compared with 2019) and a significant recovery in 2022 and 2023 to reach a similar level than in 2018. Energy consumption for rail transport continued its fall and in 2023 was around 30.5% lower than in 1990, whereas the figure was 24.2% lower for transport via inland waterways.
Non-energy consumption
Final non-energy consumption includes fuels that are used as raw materials and are not consumed as fuel or transformed into another fuel (for example, natural gas used in fertilizers, or bitumen used in road construction). Non-energy consumption in 2023 was 3 022 PJ (Figure 13). Oil and petroleum products accounted for 84.6%, natural gas 13.4%, and solid fossil fuels 1.9% of all non-energy consumption.
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Energy dependency
Gross available energy represents the quantity of energy necessary to satisfy the energy needs of a country or a region. The ratio between net imports and gross available energy indicates the ability of a country or a region to meet all its energy needs. This ratio is called energy dependency. In other words, it shows the extent to which a country or a region is dependent on energy imports. This is illustrated in Figure 14, where the total height of the stacked column represents gross available energy. The upper stack in each column shows energy imported (imports minus exports), while the lower stack represents energy produced in the EU (domestic production + stock changes). The proportion between the top of the lower stack and the total represents energy dependency.
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In 2023 the EU's energy demand was highest for oil and petroleum products reaching 21 092 PJ, of which 94.9% was imported. For natural gas the demand in 2023 stood at 11 431 PJ, with 90.0% of it covered by imports. The production of solid fossil fuels in the EU has been in decline over the last 2 decades (Figure 1), as was their gross available energy. At EU level in 2023, 40.8% of solid fossil fuels consumed were imported. Overall, the trend from 1990 to 2000-2005 saw an increase in import dependency, from 50.0% to 56-58%. This level of import dependency has been kept around 56-60% throughout the years, with two exceptions in 2019 (60.5%) and in 2022 (62.5%). The figure stood at 58.4% in 2023.
Energy intensity
Energy intensity can be considered as an approximation of the energy efficiency of a country's economy, and shows the quantity of energy needed to produce a unit of GDP (gross domestic product). There are various reasons for observed improvements in energy intensity: a general shift from industry towards a service-based economy in Europe, a shift within industry to less energy-intensive activities and production methods, the closure of inefficient units, and more energy-efficient appliances. Map 2 illustrates energy intensity using GDP purchasing power standards (PPS), which are more suited for comparison across countries in a specific year.
(gigajoule per thousand euro PPS)
Source: Eurostat (nrg_bal_s), (nama_10_gdp)
Figure 15 shows energy intensity using chain-linked GDP values, which are better suited for comparison of historic trends in each country. Compared with a decade ago, all EU countries achieved improvements in terms of energy intensity.
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Source data for tables and graphs
Data sources & methodology
Data on energy are submitted on the basis of internationally agreed methodology in joint annual energy questionnaires (Eurostat - OECD/International Energy Agency (IEA) - UNECE). Data are available for all EU Member States and the methodology is harmonised for all reporting countries. Consequently, data comparability across countries is very high. All energy data are available in the online database. Energy balances are constructed based on Eurostat's methodology that is described in the Energy balance guide.
Context
Everyday life depends on reliable and affordable energy services, such as heating and cooling, electricity supply, and transport. Energy enables the smooth functioning of all economic sectors, from business and industry to agriculture. The EU still relies heavily on fossil fuels for its energy and faces a number of challenges to securing affordable, reliable and sustainable energy supplies. Increasing energy efficiency, improving energy productivity and reducing total consumption, while at the same time ensuring security of supply, competitiveness and access to affordable energy for all its citizens, are some of the ways the EU can improve its energy system. Energy statistics provides crucial information for policy makers on many of these issues.
The EU energy policy aims at building a stronger energy union that gives EU consumers - households and businesses - secure, sustainable, competitive and affordable energy. EU competitiveness is at the heart of its economic agenda, to ensure that European businesses can thrive in the global marketplace and to deliver sustainable prosperity for all people in the EU. The EU aims to be climate-neutral by 2050. The Commission has proposed a European Climate Law to turn this political commitment into a legal obligation. The Fit for 55 legislative proposals cover a wide range of policy areas including climate, energy, transport and taxation, setting out the ways in which the Commission will reach its updated 2030 target in real terms.
Energy statistics renders the complex processes of the energy we use more comprehensible and can help us understand the developments of energy consumption. It includes a broad spectrum of energy data such as annual data on crude oil, oil products, natural gas, electricity, derived heat, solid fossil fuels, renewables and wastes, covering the full spectrum of the energy balance positions from supply through transformation to final energy consumption by sector and fuel type. These are the data used in this article.
Footnotes
- ↑ Energy transformation includes energy lost during conversion of primary energy products into secondary energy products that are actually consumed by end users; for example crude oil refining into motor gasoline or production of electricity from coal.
- ↑ In energy balances, international aviation and maritime bunkers are excluded from final energy consumption.
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- Regulation (EC) No 1099/2008 on energy statistics
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