Children in migration - demography and migration

Data extracted on 20 June 2025

Planned article update: June 2026

Highlights

On 1 January 2024, around 7.5 million people aged less than 18 years did not have the citizenship of their country of residence in the EU.

In 2023, 555 000 non-EU citizen and stateless minors aged less than 15 years immigrated to one of the EU countries, which is 39% less than in 2022 (917 000).

In 2023, 14.0% of newborns (515 000 births) in the EU had a mother who was not an EU citizen.

Share of non-national resident population aged less than 18 in total resident population aged less than 18, EU, 1 January 2024
Source: Eurostat (migr_pop2ctz)

This article presents European statistics on minors in migration based on international migration flows, the number of national and non-national residents in the population (stocks) as well as data relating to live births by citizenship of mother and the acquisition of citizenship. It focuses mainly on minors arriving in or residing in an EU country different from their country of citizenship, encompassing both intra-EU migration and immigration from non-EU countries. The population and migration statistics for Poland, Slovakia and Sweden do not include refugees from Ukraine who are receiving temporary protection.

Migration of minors depends mainly on the migration of their parents or relatives, although it also includes unaccompanied minors. The main explanatory factors of migration can be found in the combination of economic, environmental, political and social factors: either in a migrant's country of origin (push factors) or in the country of destination (pull factors).

This article forms part of the online publication Children in migration - facts and figures that also provides a range of complementary statistics on asylum applicants under the age of 18 and residence permits for family reasons issued to minors.

Total number of non-national minors in the EU: main indicators in 2024

On 1 January 2024, around 7.5 million people aged less than 18 years did not have the citizenship of their country of residence in the EU, accounting for 9.4% of the total number of minors living in the EU and 17.4% of the total number of non-national residents (Figure 1). When looking at the distribution by main age groups, the highest share was observed for the 5-9 years age group (29.8%). In comparison, the share of those aged from 5 to 9 years in the total number of minors in the EU amounted to 27.0%.

Figure 1

As shown in Figure 2, Germany (28.0%), France (16.9%), Spain (13.9%) and Italy (13.7%) were the main EU countries hosting non-national minors – almost three out of four minors without the citizenship of their country of residence were residing in one of those four EU countries.

Figure 2

In relative terms, the highest shares of non-national minors in the total minors' population were observed in Luxembourg (45.7%), Austria (21.9%), Malta (19.3%) and Cyprus (17.2%) (Figure 3). The shares were also higher or equal to 10% in Germany, Belgium, Spain, Italy and Denmark. The lowest shares were observed in Slovakia (0.4%), Poland (0.8%) and Romania (0.9%).

Figure 3

The share of non-national minors in the total non-national population (Figure 4) depends on the number of factors including past migration flows, on the number of births of non-national children on the territory of the host country and on policies regarding the acquisition of citizenship. This share was equal or higher than the EU average (17.4%) in 9 EU countries, with the highest value in France (21.0%), and the lowest in Latvia (5.0%) and Slovakia (6.4%).

Figure 4

Looking at the shares of non-national resident population by different age groups of minors, it varies from one EU country to another (Table 1). For example, the share of minors aged less than 5 years was higher than 30% in Sweden and Malta, and lower than 20% in Portugal, Latvia, Bulgaria and Romania.

Table 1: Non-national resident population aged less than 18 by age groups, EU and EFTA countries, 1 January 2024
Source: Eurostat (migr_pop2ctz)

Non-national minors in the EU: development over 2015-2024

Figure 5 shows the contribution of non-national minors on the development of the total minors' population in the EU. This dynamic, as already stated, is influenced by several factors: emigration and immigration flows, acquisition of citizenship, birth of non-national children, and the fact that each year, some of the minors become adults. The increase (+49.9%, 2.5 million people more) of the population of non-national minors between 1 January 2015 and 1 January 2024, nearly offset the decrease in the population of national minors (-5.1%, 3.9 million people less). This resulted in a slight decline in the total minors' population (-1.7%, 1.4 million people less).

Figure 5

These opposing trends in the populations of non-national and national minors led to a significant increase in the share of the population of non-national minors in the total minors' population in the EU, from 6.1% in 2015 to 9.4% in 2024 (Figure 6).

Figure 6

Number of minors aged less than 15 years in the EU by main groups of citizenship

Figure 7 presents the trend in the number of minors aged less than 15 years in the EU having either an EU citizenship different from the EU country where they reside or a non-EU citizenship (including stateless). In both cases, an upward trend was visible from 2015 to 2024, but the total growth of minors being non-EU citizens (+62.4%) was notably higher than for minors being EU citizens (+25.8%). On 1 January 2024, the number of non-EU citizen minors was more than twice (2.5) the number of EU citizen minors.

Figure 7

On 1 January 2024, 71.2% non-national minors aged less than 15 years were non-EU citizens or stateless. Table 2, which provides a breakdown of the non-national resident population aged less than 15 by the main groups of citizenship for EU and EFTA countries, shows that this structure can vary greatly from one country to another. In Belgium and Luxembourg, the majority of non-national minors were having a citizenship on another EU country. In Cyprus, Slovakia, Austria, Ireland and the Netherlands the share of minors with another EU country citizenship in the total number of non-national minors was higher than 40%. In eight countries (Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Slovenia, Romania, Estonia, Greece and Bulgaria) this share was lower than 10%.

Table 2: Non-national resident population aged less than 15 by main groups of citizenship, EU, 1 January 2024
Source: Eurostat (migr_pop1ctz)

Figure 8 presents the corresponding share of minors aged less than 15 years in the total population by main groups of citizenship on 1 January 2024. At EU level, 14.6% of the national residents were aged less than 15 years, whereas 14.7% of non-national residents were aged less than 15 years. Concerning the share of minors in the non-national population, 12.8% were EU citizens, 15.5% non-EU citizens, 17.4% stateless and 54.5% with an unknown citizenship.

The share of minors in the national population is higher than in non-national population in 21 EU countries (in particular in Latvia, Slovakia, Estonia and Ireland), while the share of minors in the non-national population with EU citizenship is higher than that for non-EU citizen minors in only 3 EU countries (Latvia, Cyprus and Malta).

Figure 8

Table 3 provides some indicators on the trend in the resident population of non-national minors aged less than 15 years in the EU and EFTA countries over 2015-2024. Among the 9 EU countries where the share of non-nationals in the population aged less than 15 years is higher than 10%, this share increased slightly in Luxembourg (+1.0 percentage points (pp)) and Italy (+1.1 pp), whereas the increase was the highest in Malta and Germany (+2.4 pp each). In both Malta and Germany, this increasing share of non-national minors was mainly explained by the increasing share of minor non-EU citizens.

At the EU level, the annual average growth rates show opposing trends between national and non-national minors, with a decrease of 0.7% for national minors and an increase of 4.6% for non-national minors. The difference in growth rates between EU and non-EU minors is 2.9 pp, with EU minors growing by 2.6% and non-EU minors by 5.5%.

A positive growth rate in the number of national minors can be observed in 5 of the EU countries, with the highest values recorded in Luxembourg (+1.8%) and Sweden (+0.8%). Negative growth rates for non-national minors were recorded in Greece, Italy, Slovakia and Sweden. Over 2015-2024, positive yearly growth rates, higher than 10%, for the total number of non-national minors were observed in 9 EU countries (Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Croatia, Czechia, Malta, Germany, Estonia and Slovenia), with a higher growth rates recorded for non-EU-citizen minors than EU-citizen minors in all of them.

Table 3: Share of non-national resident population aged less than 15 in the total resident population aged less than 15 as of 1 January 2024, and average growth rate by main groups of citizenship, 2015-2024
Source: Eurostat (migr_pop1ctz)

Immigration of minors aged less than 15 years by main groups of citizenship

Immigration of minors is one of the factors that influence the total number of non-national minors in the total population. In addition to EU-citizen minors living in an EU country different from their country of citizenship, and non-EU-citizen (including stateless) minors, immigration statistics include national minors having returned to their country of citizenship. Figure 9 shows the trend from 2014 to 2023 in the immigration of minors in the EU for those three main groups of citizenship. It should be noted that aggregate EU figures presented here do not represent the immigration flows to the EU from non-EU countries, as they also include flows between different EU countries. Each group of citizenship followed a different path

The immigration of non-EU-citizen and stateless minors, which forms the main group over the whole period, peaked in 2015 linked to the 'migration crisis'. After peaking, it declined in the next 2 years, before increasing again in 2018 and 2019. During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, a drop was recorded, while in 2021 the number increased again. In 2022, 917 000 non-EU-citizen and stateless minors aged less than 15 years immigrated to one of the EU countries (highest number in the time series presented in the graph). This increase, more than triple compared with 2021, can be partially explained by the change in immigration from Ukraine. In 2023, the number fell sharply to 555 000.

The immigration of EU-citizen minors to an EU country (different from their country of citizenship) is characterised by an upward trend between 2014 and 2015 and a downward trend from 2015 onwards, accentuated in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic (-14.8%). The numbers rose again in 2021 and 2022 but dropped to 114 000 in 2023.

The immigration of national minors exhibited an upward trend from 2014 to 2019, but as for EU- and non-EU-citizen minors, a stronger decline in immigration of nationals was observed in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, 159 000 minors returned to their EU country of citizenship, with the number rising to 181 000 in 2022. A decline was seen again in 2023.

Figure 9

Table 4 provides the breakdown by main groups of citizenship for available EU and EFTA countries in 2023. At EU level, most immigrant minors in the EU were non-EU citizens (66.0% of all immigrant minors in 2023). In Germany, Spain, France and Italy the level of immigration of minors was higher than 50 000. In all those countries, the share of non-EU-citizen and stateless immigrant minors was over 50%, with the highest value recorded for Germany (77.0%). By contrast, a share of nationals higher than 50% of the total minors' immigration was observed in Slovakia and Romania.

Table 4: Immigrants aged less than 15 by main groups of citizenship, 2023
Source: Eurostat (migr_imm1ctz)

Figures 10 and 11 illustrate the proportion of minors under 15 within the total immigration figures in the EU, categorized by citizenship group. In 2023, at the EU level, the share of immigrant minors was highest among nationals (16.1% of all immigrant nationals), compared to non-EU citizens (14.5% of all non-EU immigrants), and lowest among EU citizen minors moving to a different EU country (10.9% of all EU citizen immigrants).

It should be noted that the share of minors in the total immigration is not stable (Figure 11), particularly for non-EU-citizen and stateless minors and national minors. For example, this share for non-EU-citizen and stateless minors was the highest during the migration crisis in 2015-2016, and recently in 2022. Whereas for national minors, the share followed an upward trend from 2014 to 2018, before slightly dropping in 2019 and in a more pronounced way in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Figure 10

Figure 11

Live births by mother's citizenship

The number of births of non-national children is another factor influencing the share of non-national children in the total population of resident children. Table 5, which gives the number of live births by citizenship of mother in 2023, provides an indicator to measure this phenomenon. In absolute terms, 160 000 children were born from a mother with an EU citizenship living in an EU country different from her country of citizenship and 515 000 were born from a non-EU citizen mother, including stateless mothers. Even if not all new-born children automatically receive their mother's citizenship, this data highlights the importance of considering births in the analysis of child migration.

Table 5 shows that at EU level, the yearly average growth rate of the total number of births (-1.9%) was negative between 2014 and 2023. The rate was negative for the number of live births recorded for mothers with national citizenship (-2.5%) and for mothers with another EU citizenship (-0.8%) whereas it was positive for mothers with a non-EU citizenship (+2.4%).

Table 5: Live births by mother’s main groups of citizenship in 2023, and average growth rate by main groups of citizenship, 2014-2023
Source: Eurostat (demo_faczc)

Acquisition of citizenship

Figure 12 shows the shares of minors aged less than 15 years who acquired a citizenship of an EU country in the total number of acquisitions of citizenships, disaggregated by the previous country of citizenship. In 2023, this share was equal to 20.0% for minors previously citizens of another EU country and 24.4% for minors previously citizens of a non-EU country.

Figure 12

The share of minors who acquired EU citizenship varies greatly from one EU country to another and over time. In 2023, the share of minors who acquired an EU citizenship in the total of acquisitions of citizenship was higher than the EU average in 9 EU countries, with the highest share observed for Latvia (92.7%). The share of minors previously citizens of a non-EU country was equal or higher than the EU average in 9 EU countries, with 2 highest shares recorded in France (35.8%) and Denmark (31.4%).

Source data for tables and graphs

Children in migration - tables

Data sources

This article presents European statistics on minors in migration based on international migration flows, the number of national and non-national residents in the population (stocks) as well as data relating to live births by citizenship of mother and acquisitions of citizenship. It focuses mainly on flows and stocks of foreign and stateless minors broken down by EU and non-EU citizens. Data are collected on an annual basis and are supplied to Eurostat by the national statistical authorities of the EU and EFTA countries.

Information on data reliability, series breaks, differing definitions and flags can be consulted in the online datasets.

Legal sources

Since 2008, migration and international protection data have been collected based on Regulation (EC) No 862/2007. The analysis and composition of the EU, EFTA and candidate countries as of 1 January of the reference year are given in Commission Regulation (EC) No 351/2010. This defines a core set of statistics on international migration flows, population stocks of foreigners, the acquisition of citizenship, residence permits, asylum and measures against illegal entry and stay. Although EU countries may continue to use any appropriate data sources according to national availability and practice, the statistics collected under the Regulation (EC) No 862/2007 must be based on common definitions and concepts. Most EU countries base their statistics on administrative data sources such as population registers, registers of foreigners, registers of residence or work permits, health insurance registers and tax registers. Some countries use mirror statistics, sample surveys or estimation methods to produce migration statistics. The implementation of the Regulation is expected to result in increased availability and comparability of migration statistics.
As stated in Article 2.1(a), (b) and (c) of Regulation (EC) No 862/2007, immigrants who have been residing (or who are expected to reside) in the territory of an EU country for a period of at least 12 months are counted in immigration statistics. Whereas emigrants living abroad for more than 12 months are counted in emigration statistics. Data collected by Eurostat concern migration for a period of 12 months or longer. Therefore, migrants include people who have migrated to the country for a period of one year or more as well as persons who have migrated on a permanent basis. Eurostat collects data on acquisitions of citizenship under the provisions of Article 3.1(d) of Regulation (EC) No 862/2007, which states that 'Member States shall supply to the Commission (Eurostat) statistics on the numbers of (…) persons having their usual residence in the territory of the Member State and having acquired during the reference year the citizenship of the Member State (…) disaggregated by (…) the former citizenship of the persons concerned and by whether the person was formerly stateless'.
Methodological notes:

Age: There are 2 ways of recording age: Age reached: number of complete years lived at the end of the calendar year in question. Under this age concept, a person born in 1951 will be 52 on each day of the calendar year 2003, irrespective of his or her birthday. Age completed: number of completed years lived at most recent birthday.

For migration flows, data presented in this article refer to age reached for all EU countries with the exception of Estonia (2022 data), Ireland, Greece, Spain (2021-2023 data), Lithuania (2023 data), Malta, Austria, Romania and Slovenia. In these countries data is by age completed.

For acquisitions of citizenship, data presented in this article refer to age reached for all EU countries with the exception of Germany, Greece, Ireland, France, Austria, Lithuania, Malta, Romania and Slovenia. In these countries, data is by age completed.

Member States and EFTA countries by inclusion/exclusion of asylum seekers and refugees in the data on population reported to Eurostat in the framework of the Unified Demographic data collection Reference Year 2023

Population as of 01.01.2024	Included	Excluded
Asylum seekers usually resident for at least 12 months	Belgium, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Slovenia, Norway, Switzerland	Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Liechtenstein
Refugees usually resident for at least 12 months	Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland
Refugees from Ukraine who benefit from temporary protection in the EU	Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland	Poland, Slovakia, Sweden, Liechtenstein

Member States and EFTA countries by inclusion/exclusion of asylum seekers and refugees in the data on migration reported to Eurostat in the framework of the Unified Demographic data collection Reference Year 2023

Migration for 2023	Included	Excluded
Asylum seekers usually resident for at least 12 months	Belgium, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Slovenia, Norway, Switzerland	Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Liechtenstein
Refugees usually resident for at least 12 months	Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland
Refugees from Ukraine who benefit from temporary protection in the EU	Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland	Poland, Slovakia, Sweden, Liechtenstein

Refugee: The term does not solely refer to persons granted refugee status (as defined in Article 2(e) of Directive 2011/95/EC within the meaning of Article1 of the Geneva Convention relating to the Status of Refugees of 28 July 1951, as amended by the New York Protocol of 31 January 1967) but also to persons granted subsidiary protection (as defined in Article 2(g) of Directive 2011/95/EC) and persons covered by a decision granting authorisation to stay for humanitarian reasons under national laws concerning international protection.

Asylum seeker: First-time asylum applications are country-specific and imply no time limit. Therefore, an asylum seeker can apply for the first time in a given country and afterwards again as first-time applicant in any other country. If an asylum seeker lodges once more an application in the same country after any period of time, (s)he is not considered again a first-time applicant.

Guidance on the inclusion of refugees from Ukraine who benefit from temporary protection in the EU in the usually resident population: persons from Ukraine granted temporary protection should be counted as part of the usually resident population. Based on this, those who arrived from Ukraine and were granted temporary protection during the year – and who are believed to still be present at the end of the year – should be counted as immigrants during the year and as part of the migrant stock at the end of the reference period.

Concerning the distinction between EU and non-EU citizens for the stocks of migrants, please note that, due to data availability, in 2015 and 2016 (in the case of all reporting countries) and in years 2017 to 2020 (in the case of Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Greece, Malta and Poland), non-EU minor migrants, citizens from the United Kingdom are counted as EU citizens. While they are counted as non-EU citizens in 2021, 2022, 2023 and 2024 data. For immigration flows, citizens from the United Kingdom are counted as EU citizens from 2014 to 2020 while they are counted as non-EU citizens in 2021, 2022 and 2023. These breaks in the presented time series implies that the data from 2021 onwards are not fully comparable with the data prior to 2021.

Non-national category includes the following categories: EU citizens (excluding the reporting country), non-EU citizens, stateless and unknown.

Context: EU migration policy

In recent years, the number of children in migration arriving in the European Union, many of whom are unaccompanied, has increased in a dramatic way, particularly due to migration crisis in 2015-2016, and recently in 2022 due to the war in Ukraine.
Protecting minors is first and foremost about upholding European values of respect for human rights, dignity and solidarity. This is why protecting all children in migration, regardless of status and at all stages of migration, is a priority. The European Union, together with its Member States and with the support of the relevant EU agencies (European Border and Coast Guard Agency; European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA) and the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA)), has been active on this front for many years. The existing EU policies and legislation provide a solid framework for the protection of the rights of the child in migration covering all aspects including reception conditions, the treatment of their applications and integration.
The protection of children in migration starts by addressing the root causes which lead so many of them to embark on perilous journeys to Europe. This means addressing the persistence of violent and often protracted conflicts, forced displacement, inequalities in living standards, limited economic opportunities and access to basic services by making sustained efforts to eradicate poverty and deprivation and develop integrated child protection systems in non-EU countries. The European Union and its Member States have stepped up their efforts to establish a comprehensive external policy framework to reinforce cooperation with partner countries in mainstreaming child protection at the global, regional and bilateral level. The European Union is fully committed to implement the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which calls for a world in which every child grows up free from violence and exploitation, has his/her rights protected and access to quality education and healthcare. The 2015 Valletta Summit^[1] political declaration and its Action Plan calls for the prevention of and fight against irregular migration, migrant smuggling and trafficking in human beings (with a specific focus on women and children).
The EU Guidelines on the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of the Child renew the EU's commitment to promote and protect the indivisibility of the rights of the child in its relations with non-EU countries, including countries of origin or transit. In this context, the Council reaffirmed the need to protect all refugee and migrant children, regardless of their status, and give primary consideration at all times to the best interests of the child, including unaccompanied children and those separated from their families, in full compliance with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and its Optional Protocols.
Within the European Commission, the Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs is responsible for immigration policy, whereas the Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers is in charge of child policy. All relevant legal acts and information regarding the EU's immigration policy can be accessed on the European Commission's website. Readers interested in the recent development of the global immigration policy in the European Union are also invited to refer to the Pact on Migration and Asylum which was presented by the European Commission in September 2020 and adopted by the European Parliament in April 2024, and by the Council of the EU in May 2024. The Pact on Migration and Asylum underlines that the EU asylum and migration management system needs to provide for the special needs of vulnerable groups, including children. In particular, the reform of EU rules on asylum and return is an opportunity to strengthen safeguards and protection standards under EU law for migrant children with the following goals:

The right for the child to be heard in the context of asylum and migration proceedings.
Unaccompanied minors should be appointed a guardian within 15 working days.
Unaccompanied minors and families with children under 12 years to be exempted from the mandatory border procedure.
Develop effective alternatives to detention for children and their families.
Rules on evidence required for family reunification simplified.
The right to adequate accommodation and assistance, prompt and non-discriminatory access to education, and early access to integration services, will be reinforced.

Footnotes

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/21839/action_plan_en.pdf ↑

Explore further

Database

Thematic section

Publications

Methodology

Population (national level) (ESMS metadata file — demo_pop_esms)
International Migration statistics (ESMS metadata file — migr_immi_esms)
Acquisition and loss of citizenship (ESMS metadata file — migr_acqn_esms)

External links

[1] ttps://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/21839/action_plan_en.pdf ↑

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